Adaption: hope in the face of an increasingly bleak future

The news has not provided much hope in recent years regarding the welfair of Earths residents concerning Climate Change. News of the Planet hitting the symbolic threshold of 400 ppm makes Climate Change feel ever more real. Reaching 400 parts per million (ppm) will mean generations to come will not see this number to fall within their lifetime. 

In 2015, for the first time, CO2 levels in the atmosphere were at 400 ppm on average across the year as a whole, the World Meterorological Organisation's (WMO) annual greenhouse gas bulletin reveals. 

However, in the wake of these disturbing truths, the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) met on the 5^th October 2016 to discuss resilience building, and their potential to boost economic growth. The event highlighted the role SIDS could play as innovators of climate resilience.

Two panels discussed, how islands can serve as resilience “incubators,” and what other countries can learn from them about adaptation and dealing with climate risk.

In the opening session, Angus Friday, Grenada’s ambassador to the US and former Head of the Alliance Of Small Island States (AOSIS), highlighted that much work has already been done on the “soft” aspects of institutional capacity and institution building, including stakeholder engagement, communication and public awareness. He noted, however, that many homes in his country are not hurricane-proof, in the way that homes are in some of the wealthier SIDS. He added that damage for Hurricane Ivan had amounted to 200% of Grenada’s GDP and destroyed 90% of homes, and that there is “a bricks-and-mortar element” to managing climate risk.

Friday suggested that countries’ Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) under the Paris Agreement on climate change could be the starting point for resilience building measures that promote economic opportunities – for example, through investments in renewable energy that can alleviate the high amount that SIDS households currently spend on electricity powered by imported fossil fuels. He also emphasized the possibility of using public sector funds to leverage private sector investments, highlighting Grenada’s development of a prospectus for international investors on potential investments in tourism, fisheries and projects that will build natural capital.

Multilateral discussions of Climate Change, resilience building and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) inevitably centre round financing. Attention was drawn to the way that SIDS in the African region are using debt-for adaptation swaps to raise financing for marine protected areas (MPAs). Many SIDS encompass far more ocean territory than land and therefore should invest in marine spatial planning to ensure the sustainable development of marine areas surrounding MPAs.

An example would be Seychelles ongoing cooperation with The Nature Conservancy and the World Bank, and its work on issuing ‘blue bonds’ to support sustainable fisheries. Seychelles and Mauritius will be supporting Oceans Day at COP22, they will play a leading role in promoting African countries’ involvement in strengthening ocean resilience. 

Artful poetry used to spread the message of climate change

The Pacific Islands may not be known for their poetry, but powerful young voices writing and speaking on issues such as climate change, colonialism, language, identity, sexuality and sovereignty have been catching the attention of the art community (NBC News, 2016). One in particular, Kathy Jetnill-Kiljner, from the Marshall Islands (Perez, 2016). This artistic take on climate change comes at a good time as, increasingly, journalists and climate change advocates become frustrated by the lack of / poor reporting of climate change – especially in the Pacific Islands (Koroi, 2016).

Kathy was chosen to address the UN members on 23^rd September 2014 for the opening of the Climate Change Summit in New York. She represented civil society and delivered an emotional speech aimed at world leaders to address and find solutions on the issue of climate change, which the Pacific Island nations are already feeling the effects of. She ended her speech with a poem she originally wrote for her seven month old daughter. She received a standing ovation, a rare sight among the world leaders in the U.N. headquarters. She is a poet, climate change activist, mother, teacher, and performing artist (Perez, 2016). She is not the only one however, speaking up against the injustices faced in the South Pacific. William Alfred Nu'utupu Giles, is another, he is a Samoan-American poet living in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is a Kundiman Fellow, works at the non-profit Pacific Tongue promoting artistic expression in the Oceanic community. He is a Brave New Voices International Poetry Slam Champion, and is the 2015 National Underground Poetry Slam Champion (NBC News, 2016). These are two of the growing community of people rising up against the oppression of climate change, using artistic means to express their struggle.

Videos of the various poets can be found on the NBC website

Pause on Pacific

I am not from the Pacific region, and I know many of my readers aren’t too, so I thought you may want to have a look at the easy read summary of COP21, provided by the BBC, which has no specific focus on the Pacific region. 

Also a really simple 5 point summary on what COP21 means for change, written by UCL lecturer Simon Lewis and a business related one from the Carbon Trust

PacificCOP21 – will it produce any meaningful results?

As COP21 draws to a close, WHO secretary shoots down the haters (critics) of Climate Change, and points to the Pacific islands as the example of how climate change has already caused devastating irreversible damage. The first ever climate refugees are emerging as some islands are submerging into the sea (Odiwuor, 2015).

Dame Taylor, Pacific Ocean Commissioner told COP21 it has never been so important to amplify the Pacific voice. Inaction will undermine our development aspirations and will result in the destruction of unique and diverse cultures as well as the failure of the Sustainable Development Goals (Pittman, 2015). Indeed this has been the time were the Pacific islands have an elevated voice. With their influence a more ambitious target of 1.5 degrees has been put forward, below the previous 2 degree target. Their role has highlighted moral issues, detracting from the usual concerns of economic concerns from the more polluting nations (Velde, 2015).

While most countries think of Climate Change in terms of economic costs, the Pacific islands picture a world map without them on it. Rising seas are already eroding coast line and contaminating freshwater wells. Many are threatened by increases in severity and frequency of typhoons and hurricanes, as well as the very real threat of having no land left to survive on. The vulnerability of the small islands provides them with an elevated platform despite their low impact on world affairs (Ritter, 2015).  

At the start of the Paris talks last week, U.S. President Barack Obama met with five leaders of island nations. Secretary of State John Kerry has been discussing the envisioned Paris deal with others, including Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga of Tuvalu, the poster child of disappearing islands (Ritter, 2015).

The Europeans too, have been reaching out to small island leaders whom they see as useful allies in their attempts to get a strong binding climate pact at the conference which ends later today. The Islands are asking for a 'loss and damage' mechanism to ensure when they are hit by climate impacts such as extreme weather events exacerbated by climate change. This has made wealthy nations nervous. Originally the US did not want to be part of the agreement at all, worried it would pave the way for claims of liability and compensation. In the latest draft they suggested mentioning it in a section on adaptation to climate change (Ritter, 2015).  But the small islands want a seperate section for 'loss and damage' to show it is not about adapting to climate change, but coping with unavoidable impacts, said Thoriq Ibrahim, the environment minister of the Maldives and chair of an alliance of small island nations (Ritter, 2015). In one of the first projects to be approved by the Green Climate Fund, a UN programme for poor nations impacted by climate change, the Maldives will receive $23.6 million to secure freshwater supply on its outer islands. An action which is set to become more often as climate change continues to adversely affect these small nations (Ritter, 2015).

The prospect of reparations to island countries for the cost of adapting to climate change has caused a rift among parties to the climate negotiations and raised fiendishly complex ethical and legal questions. It can be seen as the moral challenge of our time, no one nation can take full responsibility of climate change, yet some form of support should be given to those suffering, which are generally the countries that have contributed the least to climate change. These moral issues need to encourage rich nations to take joint responsibility avoiding any blame, to help the nations most in need (Velde, 2015).  

Pacific islands, and more specifically the talks between the islands and the US has provided pressure on other developed nations to increase their targets, one being New Sealand along with more than 100 other countries. They now back the so-called 'high amnition' target to limit global temperature rises to 1.5 degrees as the global climate change talks in Paris head into what may be a final long night of negotiations (Smellie, 2015). 

Mr Groser, New Zealands Climate Change Minister, is confident that the Paris conference will produce more favourable and impactful results than Copenhagen (Smellie, 2015). 

Small update but big role for the Pacific region to play

Pacific islands play vital role in advancing action on climate change says Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. Mr Ban encourages the Pacific region to be more vocal in the Climate debates, especially with COP 21 just around the corner (abc news, 2015). It can build political momentum to resolve outstanding issues, it can call on the major economies to raise their level of ambition (UN News Centre, 2015).

References

Abc news (2015) ‘The latest: North Korea’s FM presses US for Peace Treaty’ [Online] http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/latest-bosnia-herzegovina-touts-democracy-34175520

UN News Centre (2015) ‘Pacific Islands play vital role in advancing action on climate change, Ban tells leaders’ [Online] http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52089#.VhBVhPlViko

Climate Refugees not to be forgotten in the Pacific region

Seeing as migration and refugees have been a big focus in the media recently it only seems fitting to observe the same theme in the Pacific Islands. In the second week of October Kiribati is hosting an international conference to discuss the issue of climate change refugees. The conference will bring together the atoll nations from the Pacific region and key international agencies (Radio New Zealand, 2015).

The IPCC has said atoll nations will be submerged in 30 years or less. Unfortunately recent studies have suggested this prediction may be more generous than thought (USGS, 2015). Although a small period of time, it allows enough warning for plans to be put in place to allow citizens to migrate in a way they would feel more dignified. Multi-lateral process and negotiations are taking too long so this meeting will be able to transfer ideas and concerns between the effected nations and relevant agencies (Radio New Zealand, 2015). Australia and New Zealand are already helping labour mobility programs, some countries in the Pacific region are providing skills for young people to better understand how to equip themselves with the issues to come. This demonstrates that actions are already been taken, but more countries need to be on board for accepting migrants, and the ones already doing so need to prepare for a larger intake (World Summit, 2015).

More needs to be done in the countries effected also. More labour mobility programmes to allow greater opportunities for these people to migrate and become citizens of other countries. These negotiations will also be discussing the need for more international law concerning the environment. Discussions with Switzerland and Norway about their Nansen initiative should help develop a law to cover climate induced migration (Kiribati Climate Change, 2015). With these concerns COP 21 is a very significant event that is coming up, and it is hoped that COP 21 will create more concrete plans on what to do next in the climate change battle (Radio New Zealand, 2015).

References

Kiribati Climate Change (2015) ‘EU announces $23 million Euro for Kiribati’ [Online] http://www.climate.gov.ki/tag/kiribati-president-anote-tong/

USGS (2015) 'Many atolls may be uninhabitable within decades due to climate change' [Online] http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=4346#.VhBVpvlViko

World Summit (2015) ‘Anote Tong’ [Online] http://www.worldsummit2015.org/sunhak-peace-prize/laureates/anote-tong


Radio New Zealand (2015) ‘Climate change migration the focus of Kiribati Summit’ [Online] http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201772925/climate-change-migration-the-focus-of-kiribati-summit

Flying Foxes flying over our heads

In previous blogs I have recognised the fact that animals are being adversely affected by the effects of climate change. My main focus has been primarily on birds (e.g. the Honeycreepers) , there are some less well known mammals which are also being put in danger: these are the Flying Foxes. These are large bats which are limited in worldwide distribution due to their tropical diet of nectar, blossom, pollen and fruit (Vardon 1995). 

They are a threatened species generally but especially in the Pacific where cultural traditions and reliance on farming makes them more of a target from humans (Vardon 1995). In the Mariana Islands they are considered a local delicacy, the Maldives believe they cure asthma, and farmers attack the bats because they feed on their plantations. 

The Mortlocks and other low lying coralline islands seem to be in the most trouble (Welbergen 2008). Aside from the loss of land on islands which are already very small, sea water encroachment into the water table along with more frequent total or near total inundation of the islands during storm surges would eliminate the food and roosting sites on which the bats currently depend (Buden 2013). the Volcanic islands will provide a safer environment for the flying fox which provides hope that extinction is not definite. There is concern that climate change will affect weather patterns which will affect vegetation type and food resources (Buden 2013). It is important to remember these lesser known species as some can be forgotten and can be led to extinction. One of the most recently confirmed mammalian extinctions was the Christmas Island pipistrelle, which scientists believed vanished forever in 2009 (Buden 2013). Therefore we should provide more focus on protecting the flying fox and other less known species. 

 Buden D W, Helgen KM, Wiles GJ (2013) Taxonomy, distribution, and natural history of flying foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in the Mortlock Islands and Chuuk State, Caroline Islands.
Read more at http://news.mongabay.com/2013/1028-hance-mortlock-bats.html#TmMpSCfVKoIt1R3J.99

Vardon, M.J. & Tidemann, C.R. (1995) Harvesting of flyingfoxes (Pteropus spp.) in Australia: could it promote the conservation of endangered Pacific island species? In Conservation through sustainable use of wildlife (eds G. Grigg, P. Hale & D. Lunney), pp. 82–85, Brisbane, Australia.

Welbergen, J.; Klose, S.; Markus, N.; Eby, P. (2008). "Climate change and the effects of temperature extremes on Australian flying-foxes". Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society 275 (1633): 419–425.

Farewell Pacific - but it won't be long

It is has come… the end, but hopefully not for long. It has been a pleasure and I will be updating the blog on new and interesting developments in the South Pacific but not as regularly as before.

Just to recap I have looked at:

Water – has been a recurring theme. Water shortages have been an issue for many islands, especially low lying ones. Rising sea levels, increased frequency and intensity of storms have increased the incidence of saltwater intrusion, contaminating water supply. These tropical islands seem the furthest from dry, but it is about having access to safe water which seems to be one of the largest concerns with climate change.

Biodiversity – coral bleaching caused by the effects of climate change have been a major concern for marine biodiversity. Corals are an important ecosystem, they’re demise is possible and management of them is paramount. In my blog post on protecting corals I focused mainly on how local groups were dealing with them, for more regional approaches such as MPAs (marine protected areas) I would recommend a look at ‘Under the Sea: the curious case of coral’. Birds in Hawaii; has also been an interesting aspect of biodiversity loss due to climate change. The increasing air temperature increasing avian malaria may see the end of some of the Honeycreeper species.

Some of the articles I have read have been thought provoking and made me reassess a variety of matters. Reading Fabotkos piece about climate change being exaggerated in Tuvalu has made me more critical of pictures and youtube videos. Trying to incorporate social capital into adaption schemes was also a new way of thinking for me. These two blog posts were in my top three most viewed; Tuvalu, Canary in a coalmine? And Adapting in Fiji, more stressful than you’d expect. Have a re-read if you fancy.

I’d like to thank my followers and my fellow bloggers for educating me and occasionally referencing me J.

See you soon!

Kate x

Rising Sea levels, Raising water issues in Tuvalu

As this will be one of my lasts posts I thought it would be appropriate to leave with talking about the most famous Pacific Island when it comes to Climate Change - Tuvalu. I’ll be looking at the issues faced by climate change and what they will do to try and alleviate these problems, which I feel reflects the topics I have raised in previous posts.

Tuvalu is one of the smallest nations in terms of national economy, land mass and population size. When they claimed independence from Britain in 1978, they were advised by the British to join with Kiribati as their soils were infertile, they have limited flora and fauna, and lack many resources (Aalsberberg andHay, 1992).  They have the typical issues of small islands states, but they could be worse, due to remittances (which contribute to 20% of national income) and foreign aid Tuvalu is better off than many other small islands (Asian Development Bank, 2002). 

Despite doing well from remittances and foreign aid, their economy is still weak and their physical attributes – mainly being low lying, makes them extremely vulnerable to climate change (Connell 2003). A rise of mean sea level would lift the zone of flooding and intensify storm waves. This would erode the coast line, which would be accentuated by greater frequency of storms (Connell 2003). Land losses would create competition for land, reduce agricultural production, and resources from flora and fauna (Connell 2003).

Fishing would be affected as Mangrove habitats will be damaged. As well as reefs would also be eroded, disturbing lagoon ecology (Connell 2003).

Islands above a certain size (about 1.5 hectares) contain a permanent lens of fresh water surrounded by salt water (Connell 2003). The volume is proportionate to the land size, so loss of land would create a loss in freshwater. This is worsened, less land increases the frequency of overwash, so water is contaminated by salt water (Connell 2003). Overwash would also increase coastal erosion and greater incidence of storms. Not only does drinking water become undrinkable but agriculture becomes affected too, with the soil not being the best already supplying it with salt water would only damage crop production further (Roy and Connell, 1991). The green house affect will also affect rainwater, provided another issue for water availability. Water scarcity has been talked about in previous posts, although loss of land is an issue for any island, even more so for an island like Tuvalu as it is far too small and vulnerable to cope with land loss. Although the issue of imagined geographies has already been examined and I am now presenting Tuvalu in this vulnerable state, they will still be experiencing the effects worse than most as they do have fewer resources to cope.

As many are aware emigration has been a method of adapting to climate change, some adaptation has been less extreme. De-salinization plants have been built to cope with the water issues created by climate change. This video shows the sort of methods used to conserve water and therefore live on the island with satisfying water availability.  

The video presented a few ways of conserving water, desalinisation is attractive but very expensive. Therefore UNESCO has advised collecting rainwater to be the main priority (Indymedia Climate 2005). Education was highlighted as being essential, as well as government intervention such as changing bank loan policies so that water tanks are mandatory (Indymedia Climate 2005).

An extreme response to the effects caused by climate change is emigration. In 2001 New Zealand accepted Tuvaluans as ‘environmental refugees’(Indymedia Climate2005). Around 3,000 refugees have been sent to New Zealand, but emigration is looking less promising (Indymedia Climate 2005). Australia have said they will not recognise Tuvaluans as environmental refugees and New Zealand have stringent migration requirements so the sick, elderly and poor are less able to migrate (Indymedia Climate 2005). Migration is an extreme measure, which some do not realise when articles indicate that the island will physically disappear which it will not. Tuvaluans do not want to leave, they decided to be a small country and not join Kiribati to save their culture, they do not want to jeopardise that again. This video presents some of the other options to adapting to climate change:

Although for the pessimist it seems migration seems to be the inevitable as demonstrated in this video. 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSpDsP58udM

Tuvalu, Canary in a coalmine?

The issue of sea level rise is often demonstrated with Tuvalu. Since the late 1980s Tuvalu has been identified as threatened by sea level rise from Climate Change (Connell 2003). Tuvalu has been given a stage on the political arena, provided with politicians to represent them in climate affairs, as well as being the poster child for the effects of Climate change (Fabotko 2010). Tuvalu has been mentioned (not in name) in Al Gores ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ and is used to publicise the effects of Climate Change to; politicians at climate debates, for example at Copenhagen; and to provoke countries and the public into action.

It is incredible how its name has become so known, with no internal conflict, nuclear testing or natural disaster so have been of little interest to journalists and neighbouring countries. However now they play an important role in Climate Change discourse. They are seen as Climate refugees, as imagined geographies have presented them as country too small and poor to be without foreign aid, and to solve their issues would be to move to mainland countries such as Australia (Fabotko 2010).

Tuvalu has also been the ‘global showcase’ for renewable energies, French environmentalists have made efforts to rid all their islands of fossil fuels (Fabotko 2010). Why is it so attractive to journalists and environmentalists? I suppose it is a site where uncertainty about global climate change is miniaturised and resolved in and through the quest to know if the sea around it is rising. Tuvalu has been compared to the metaphor ‘canary in a coalmine’ which indicates that Tuvalu is not a value in itself but is important to a larger (global) environmental purpose (Fabotko 2010).

Tuvalu has become a space where the fate of the planet is brought forward in time and miniaturised in space;

‘reduced to a performance of rising seas and climate refugees played out for those with most control over the current and future uses of fossil fuels.’ (Farbutko 2010 page 8)

In this way we can view Tuvalu as an ‘Island Laboratory’, it can show us a scenario of what to come (Fabotko 2010). As Tuvalu is a major player in Climate Change discourse there have been representational leaps from the island being a ‘marginal laboratory’ to an ‘expendable laboratory’ in pursuit of the larger purpose of saving the world (Fabotko 2010). This view has led to exaggeration of the threats facing Tuvalu. For example environmentalist, Mark Lynas, has a strong desire for Tuvalu to be almost uninhabitable (Fabotko 2010). He made a piece about rising sea levels affecting the high tides in Tuvalu, in which he has a photograph of a man, two children with a barbeque knee deep in water (Fabotko 2010). It represents the high tides that have been occurring more often due to climate change. However it has been criticised as it is a misleading photograph and has been presented in may reputable sources such as UNESCO which adds validity to the image. Although high tides have been occurring more frequently, they occur around three times a year, and last a few days (Fabotko 2010). There are many like Lynas who are over exaggerating the effects of climate change in Tuvalu which should be kept in mind when looking at the island (Fabotko 2010).  

Which is why I found it interesting to find a BBC news article about low lying Pacific Islands growing not sinking. It claimed that a new geological survey showed the islands of Tuvalu, Kiribati and the Federated States of Micronesia were indeed expanding because of coral debris and sediment (Bryant 2010). The study showed that 27 islands over the last 60 years have remained stable, and some have grown (Zukerman2010). Historical images and satellite photography showed that 80% of the islands had remained the same or had got bigger (Bryant 2010). Scientists believe many of the islands will still be around for another 100 years (Zukerman 2010). Although there are some issues with this article: historical images can be subjective, and although they may not be sinking these islands are still under threat from sea level rise. Although land may not be getting scarcer the issues of salt water contamination, inundation and coastal erosion are still issues brought on by climate change.  

Honey, I am talking about the Honeycreepers

I couldn’t leave just one post to the Honeycreepers, these birds are fascinating creatures. Endemic to Hawaii they hold much scientific interest as they are an example of adaptive radiation, in other words an example of natural selection (ScienceDaily 2011) (Guardian 2011).

There was once at least 56 species, but only 18 now remain (Guardian 2011). This valuable and delicate species is at a greater threat now due to climate change.

The transmission of pox and malaria in Hawaii depends on climatic conditions, seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall in particular influence the increase or decrease mosquito populations (USGS 2009).

Hawaii provided safe refuges for birds in its more mountainous areas as their usual habitats in the wet forests on lower ground have become malaria . It is thought this area of higher altitude explained why the Honeycreepers were not completely wiped out the first time these non native diseases were introduced (USGS 2009). However the temperature in the mountains is increasing, putting Honeycreepers at a higher risk of contracting pox or malaria. Today, native Hawaiian birds face one of the highest rates of extinction in the world, only three species of Honeycreepers is in decent shape (USGS 2009).The Po‘ouli became extinct in 2004 (Pratt 2009) demonstrating the fragility to their species. 

It is thought if the 2ᵒC increase does happen around 60 to 96 % of the high-elevation disease refuges will vanish (USGS 2009).

The tropical inversion layer which is the thin cloud that surrounds the upper parts of the mountains will soon play a larger role in Honeycreepers survival. With the increase in temperature the layer has become more frequent. The tropical inversion layer affects plant growth so will make habitats further up, away from malaria risk areas, inhospitable for Honeycreepers (USGS 2009).

Deforestation could further alter the patterns of malaria transmission (Sehgal 2009). Deforestation, for example, of the Alaka`I Wilderness Preserve on Kaua`I Island could adjust the pattern of seasonal transmission of avian malaria to a pattern of continuous yearly transmission (Atkinson and LaPointe, 2009).

Natural resistance to avian malaria has developed in one species, the Hawaii amakihi, which is more populous in lower parts of the forest than more elevated areas despite high levels of mosquitoes (Woodworth et al 2005; Kilpatrick et al 2006). It is thought that good habitat management could help other honeycreepers develop some resistance to avian malaria (Kilpatrick 2006). However; warming may be increasing at a rate that will make it impossible for Hawaiian birds to develop a resistance in time. It looks like humans will need to take action or these valuable bird species will be overwhelmed by global warming (Miller 2012). 

Previous posts have focused much more on the effects climate change has on humans, we need to also remember the other creatures that are affected.

Reference

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Warmer Weather Creeping out the Honey

The recent publication of ‘Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts’ a report developed by the Pacific Islands Regional Climate Assessment (PIRCA 2012) has been the inspiration for my recent blog posts. It has helped provide new information and reiterate previous knowledge on the effects of Climate Change in the Pacific.

Something that I found interesting and relating to my new muse – Hawaii, is the warmer weather effecting bird populations.

The warmer weather has been encouraging the population of non-native mosquitoes. These mosquitoes have been spreading avian malaria which has seriously damaged bird populations (Sehgal 2012). More than 40 mosquito species have been captured in Hawaii, six have become established, most recently in 2004 (LaPonte & Burgett, 2005). The first mosquito to arrive was in 1826 (Atkinson & LaPointe, 2009b). The malaria parasite arrived later, around 1871, with the introduction of non-native birds (Miller 2012). The southern house mosquito is the vector for avian malaria and avian pox, which was one of the first to arrive (Miller 2012). Honeycreepers have mortality rates as high as 65% to 90% after been bitten just once (Miller 2012). 

Avian malaria is a diseased caused by a species of protozoan parasites (Plasmodium) that infect birds (USGS 2005). Due to climate change and the increasing temperature in the Pacific region this malaria has been able to spread. As mosquitos are new to the Hawaii environment, the birds on the island have not evolved with natural exposure to avian malaria (USGS 2005). Hawaiian honeycreepers are extremely susceptible.

Hawaii has a wide spectrum of climatic zones and habitats. These differ in rainfall, temperature and elevation which all influence the prevalence of avian malaria (USGS 2005). Mosquitos prefer wet and low elevation environments. Therefore birds who prefer a similar habitat will be at a higher risk. Honeycreepers are amongst the most susceptible, even the ones who survive acute malaria develop chronic malaria which will last for the birds lifetime (USGS 2005).

references

Atkinson, C. T., LaPointe, D. A., Hart, P. J., Spiegel, C. S., Tweed, E. J., Henneman, C., et al. (2005). ‘Host population persistence in the face of introduced vectorborne diseases: Hawaii Amakihi and avian malaria’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 5, 1531–1536.

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Being sensible in Hawaii, mitigate, save the Taro!

As established in my previous post; water insecurity is a risk facing the lower lying Pacific islands. Hawaii has taken steps to mitigate the problem. Each year, the Weather Forecast Office (WFO) in Honolulu uses national El Niño and La Niña outlooks from National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to create island-level forecasts for Hawaii (Keener 2012). The WFO uses this for television, radio, and electronic newsletters to inform policymakers, managers and communities about the potential seasonal impacts of an El Niño or La Niña event (Keener 2012).

In October 2010, the WFO predicted an above-average winter rainfall. PVT Land Company in Nanakuli, used these predictions and took steps to mitigate the climate risks. The company’s Taro crops in previous years had been destroyed by saltwater inundation at Lukunoch Attol, Chuuck State (Keener 2012). It takes around two years of normal rainfall to flush brackish water out of a taro patch (Keener 2012). If no more saltwater inundation takes place there is still a five year gap before the next harvest (Hezel, 2009). Managers decided to upgrade infrastructure that would divert and hold large amounts of stormwater (Keener 2012). By the end of November 2010, PVT had finished upgrading its storm drainage system and retention ponds. The effects of the rainfall were therefore limited in its damage. However this is not true for everyone on the Island. Other local landfills could not handle the intense rainfall and had to close down. They also released hazardous untreated water and waste onto local beaches (Keener 2012). Unlike PVT which was open the next day. PVT saved millions by this preventative measure, provides a good example of how using climate change data and acting accordingly can save money and time. 

This does show that only companies who can afford to take these measures have this option. Many companies will be unable to afford such infrastructural changes, there are measures in place to provide countries affected by climate change, so why aren’t they using it more effectively?

Many Pacific Islands are finding it difficult to access the millions in Global Funding available for Climate Change (Hawkins 2007). Coral Siale Pasisi, the Regional and International Issues Advisor at the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, says the complexities of accessing Climate Change fund are formidable and Pacific nations need expert assistance as well as stronger more accountable finance systems if they are to tap these funds (Hawkins 2007). This is less of an issue for an island like Hawaii as it is part of the USA, but for some of the smaller islands like Kiribati, they have fewer resources to tap into funds and get the help they need. Although some islands feel resentful of the view that they are vulnerable. At the Port Vila briefing on climate change, there were some at the table who felt that dependence on overseas aid for adaption and mitigation programmes were not necessary and that the Pacific Islands position on climate change should shift from that of vulnerability to value (Hawkins 2007). Some of the speakers felt it was important to harness the value of the island to fund for their measures against climate change. In the case of Kiribati, tuna is an important resource, and should be fished sustainably which will be less polluting and more profitable long term (Hawkins2007).

The Link for Keener no longer works so this is its reference

Keener, V. (2012) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press 

While we say 'rain rain go away' Pacific say 'come back today'

Water insecurity is an increasing risk from climate change. Water security is more of an issue on the low lying islands in the South Pacific. They are at a higher risk of droughts and saltwater inundation caused by high tides (Anthony 2012). Drinking water comes from two sources: rainwater catchments, and shallow wells with a layer of freshwater underlain by saltwater or brackish water (Anthony2012).  The latter is used for cultivation. The freshwater layer (lens) is vulnerable to contamination from the saltwater below, especially if too much freshwater is drawn from the lens (Anthony 2012).

Droughts adversely affect water security, and small islands are vulnerable to them. Events like El Nino can bring on severe ones, a destructive example being El Nino 1997-98. Between January and April 1998, Majuro Atoll in the Marshall Islands received only 85% of the normal rainfall for the period (Presley 2005). Reduced rainfall puts a higher strain on groundwater resources, and when these are over used saltwater contaminates the supply. Health concerns are great from drought, in Majuro water was only provided for 10 hours every two weeks for its population. Health officials reported more than 1,000 cases of dehydration, drought related skin disease, and respiratory infections (Anthony 2012).

Monitoring has been put in place to minimize future effects of drought. Integrated management of rainwater and groundwater resources is critical for water security (Anthony 2012). Especially in less developed atoll islands in the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Federation States of Micronesia (Hamlin& Takasaki, 1996). 

One way to help alleviate chronic water supply shortages during droughts would be to develop groundwater resources for non-potable uses, where feasible, so that rainwater can be saved for drinking and cooking (Anthony 2012).

When its not drought disrupting water security, flooding does. In December 2007 and again in 2008, several atoll islands in the Federated States of Micronesia were flooded by a series of high-sea/surf events (Anthony 2012). These saltwater floods had a serious impact on taro crops as these are cultivated on low central parts of the island (Anthony 2012). The outer islands of Chuuck State, around 90% of all taro crops were destroyed by saltwater inundation (Hezel2009).

Flooding can be influenced by La Niña, higher sea levels occur because of the northeast trade winds increase during the second half of the year (Sweet 2012). In December 2008, La Niña conditions occurred, producing higher-than-normal sea levels (Sweet 2012).

So sorry but the link for the Anthony and Sweet has disappeared, so will have to be in hard copy I am afraid

Anothony, S. (2012) ‘Managing vulnerable water resources in atoll nations’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 1-2

Sweet, W. (2012) A combination of processes creates extreme water levels and contributes to flooding and erosion in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 6-10

Turn off that air conditioning! Fiji needs to mitigate

Another approach to combating the effects of climate change is mitigation. Whilst adaptation is dealing with the problems that have or will become apparent, mitigation deals with the causes of climate change.

          Energy is a major cost but a necessity for tourism. The cost of this energy is not just financial but also environmental, and is contributing to the global issue of climate change. There have been poor efforts to change on the island, which is why mitigation needs to be seriously considered.

‘Nine out of the 25 businesses in the survey did not name any measures in place for reducing energy consumption’ (Becken 2005 page 388).

Other measures are not doing enough. Unfortunately some can be costly, changing from one generator to a smaller one at night is more energy efficient but too expensive for most businesses, so they choose to waste energy instead (Becken2005). Two major energy uses were noted:

-         Air conditioning and

-         Laundry

Air conditioning can be cut down by only being operational at night, as well as planting more trees for shade (Becken2005).

The main focus on reducing energy costs of laundry is reducing water temperature, some budget accommodation only supply cold showers (Becken 2005). A number of businesses operate solar heating systems, however not many use photovoltaic systems which are far more efficient (Becken2005).

Many islanders believe such technologies are expensive as they are imported but this is incorrect. According to The Department of Energy, solar radiation is more cost effective than diesel generators (Department of Energy, 2003). Photovoltaic systems have the advantage that they are silent (as opposed to diesel generators), reliable, require little maintenance, have low operating costs and are easy to install, as well as being environmentally friendly (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003). There is often a misconception that solar panels use more energy than they make, the carbon footprint of solar panels is one-tenth that of plants burning fossil fuels (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). The efficiency of the panel also depends on the types of materials used, even so most solar panels will pay back 9 -17 times the energy cost (TenBruggencate 2012)

However, they may be vulnerable to storm damage and salt deposit (Becken 2005).

          There are lots of options for reducing the amount of energy used for lighting. Energy efficient light bulbs, sensor garden lighting, solar panel lighting, and room keys activating lights in rooms (Becken 2005).

          Hotel owners and tourist businesses don’t like to educate tourists in energy efficiency as they want them to be relaxing and enjoying their holiday, one resort manager said:

‘Tourists are not here to worry about air conditioning’ (Becken 2005: page 388.).

Relating back to the adaptation Fiji blog post; coconut oil can be used for a biofuel, which will decrease importation and be more environmentally friendly (Becken2005). Importation is essential on the island as it’s too small to produce everything it needs and wants, other ways in which they have tried to reduce the amount of shipments is to combine passenger vessels with food and other commodities (Becken 2005).     

          I have found while researching mitigation strategies for Pacific Islands the actions taken place have not been so extensive as they have been for adaption. I suppose adaptive strategies are far more appealing because they alleviate direct problems, while mitigation is helping the global issue of climate change rather than the local problems. There is a higher level of uncertainty with mitigation, which makes it unattractive for governments to invest in mitigation schemes (Montz and Gruntfest 2002). This attitude will need to be changed in order to combat climate change, and Fiji have made some efforts but more is needed. 

Reinvestment in the sugar industry in Fiji

A useful video I found on the sugar industry in Fiji

It talks about the SRIF, which is the Sugar Research unit the government has set up. They have been looking into ways in which to maximize production, they also work on a local level with farmers, educating them into different farming methods as well as providing land for them. They also provide livestock, and a range of seeds in order to improve the lives of subsistence farmers. They provide financial assistance which can enable farmers to earn a living and not just survive on the land. 

Adapting in Fiji, more stressful than you'd expect

So we have established that climate change is threatening Fiji and adaptation is necessary.

Tourist accommodation is now built with cyclone-proofing; however issues have been raised, interviews conducted on the island found

'It's much easier to build cyclone proofing in new developments but expensive and difficult to incorporate this in old, established buildings' (Becken 2005).

New resorts are built around 2.6m above the average sea level to avoid the issues of sea level rise (Becken 2005). The loss of sand as a result of cyclones, changing wind patterns and sea level rise is a major problem, especially in low sandy islands such as Beachcomber Island (Becken 2005).

Despite knowing the importance of mangroves for coastal protection, people are still cutting them down in order to free up space for further developments (Becken 2005). The sedimentation has put stress on the coral reefs. Therefore there has been action to plant more mangroves and coconut trees, however this has been moving the erosion elsewhere (Becken 2005).

Coral reefs have been damaged, and Fijians are focusing on reducing human effects such as pollution rather than focusing on ocean acidification. Fijian resorts have designated areas of the reefs for tourist use, so that not all the reef is disturbed (Becken 2005). Tourists are told not to touch or take whilst snorkeling or scuba diving. Fishing boats have been instructed not to set anchor on reefs, and people are not to walk on reefs (Becken 2005). Reefs that are not already under pressure from pollution and sedimentation are more likely to cope with increases in water temperature than stressed reefs. Therefore an important adaptive measure is to protect the coral reefs around tourist resorts (Becken 2005).

Sea level rise has increased the incidence of salt water intrusion. Adaptive strategies have been to encourage the use garden waste and shredded paper, cardboard or coconut shells to retain soil moisture so that salt water and flooding doesn’t affect agriculture as much as it could, and keep tourists connected to a plentiful water supply (Becken 2005). The use of grey water or recycled water can be used for irrigation. Grey water reservoirs can be used for fire fighting, and run toilets with saltwater or recycled water for flushing (Becken 2005). There are also technological solutions for water-conserving showers and toilets (e.g dual flush). Rainwater collection is possible, but this adaptation measure is problematic in that considerable space is required for water storage (Becken 2005). Underground tanks are a solution for newly designed resorts. However septic tanks can be expensive to buy and run for communities and some resorts (Becken 2005).

How could we improve adaptation strategies?

Social capital has been discussed in order to improve adaptation strategies (Adger 2003). It is seen to improve democracy and reduce the gap of winners and losers. Marginalised groups can often be ignored by governments, so it is important to incorporate civil society in decision making. When reading about the adaptive strategies in Fiji talked about in Beckens paper, I felt not enough was being done for people employed in other sectors not involved in tourism. Of course protecting the tourist industry is important as it's a major part of Fijis economy, but it is risky having such great independence on one export. The government to some extent have tried to encourage other areas of the economy. They have reinvested in the sugar cane industry with the creation of the Sugar Research Unit in 2005 (SRIF 2010). The government have also focused some attention to their coconut industry, coconut oil can be used as a biofuel, and when crude oil is becoming more expensive, biofuels can help costs internally and be a useful export (Islands Business International 2007).