Flying Foxes flying over our heads

In previous blogs I have recognised the fact that animals are being adversely affected by the effects of climate change. My main focus has been primarily on birds (e.g. the Honeycreepers) , there are some less well known mammals which are also being put in danger: these are the Flying Foxes. These are large bats which are limited in worldwide distribution due to their tropical diet of nectar, blossom, pollen and fruit (Vardon 1995). 

They are a threatened species generally but especially in the Pacific where cultural traditions and reliance on farming makes them more of a target from humans (Vardon 1995). In the Mariana Islands they are considered a local delicacy, the Maldives believe they cure asthma, and farmers attack the bats because they feed on their plantations. 

The Mortlocks and other low lying coralline islands seem to be in the most trouble (Welbergen 2008). Aside from the loss of land on islands which are already very small, sea water encroachment into the water table along with more frequent total or near total inundation of the islands during storm surges would eliminate the food and roosting sites on which the bats currently depend (Buden 2013). the Volcanic islands will provide a safer environment for the flying fox which provides hope that extinction is not definite. There is concern that climate change will affect weather patterns which will affect vegetation type and food resources (Buden 2013). It is important to remember these lesser known species as some can be forgotten and can be led to extinction. One of the most recently confirmed mammalian extinctions was the Christmas Island pipistrelle, which scientists believed vanished forever in 2009 (Buden 2013). Therefore we should provide more focus on protecting the flying fox and other less known species. 

 Buden D W, Helgen KM, Wiles GJ (2013) Taxonomy, distribution, and natural history of flying foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in the Mortlock Islands and Chuuk State, Caroline Islands.
Read more at http://news.mongabay.com/2013/1028-hance-mortlock-bats.html#TmMpSCfVKoIt1R3J.99

Vardon, M.J. & Tidemann, C.R. (1995) Harvesting of flyingfoxes (Pteropus spp.) in Australia: could it promote the conservation of endangered Pacific island species? In Conservation through sustainable use of wildlife (eds G. Grigg, P. Hale & D. Lunney), pp. 82–85, Brisbane, Australia.

Welbergen, J.; Klose, S.; Markus, N.; Eby, P. (2008). "Climate change and the effects of temperature extremes on Australian flying-foxes". Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society 275 (1633): 419–425.

Farewell Pacific - but it won't be long

It is has come… the end, but hopefully not for long. It has been a pleasure and I will be updating the blog on new and interesting developments in the South Pacific but not as regularly as before.

Just to recap I have looked at:

Water – has been a recurring theme. Water shortages have been an issue for many islands, especially low lying ones. Rising sea levels, increased frequency and intensity of storms have increased the incidence of saltwater intrusion, contaminating water supply. These tropical islands seem the furthest from dry, but it is about having access to safe water which seems to be one of the largest concerns with climate change.

Biodiversity – coral bleaching caused by the effects of climate change have been a major concern for marine biodiversity. Corals are an important ecosystem, they’re demise is possible and management of them is paramount. In my blog post on protecting corals I focused mainly on how local groups were dealing with them, for more regional approaches such as MPAs (marine protected areas) I would recommend a look at ‘Under the Sea: the curious case of coral’. Birds in Hawaii; has also been an interesting aspect of biodiversity loss due to climate change. The increasing air temperature increasing avian malaria may see the end of some of the Honeycreeper species.

Some of the articles I have read have been thought provoking and made me reassess a variety of matters. Reading Fabotkos piece about climate change being exaggerated in Tuvalu has made me more critical of pictures and youtube videos. Trying to incorporate social capital into adaption schemes was also a new way of thinking for me. These two blog posts were in my top three most viewed; Tuvalu, Canary in a coalmine? And Adapting in Fiji, more stressful than you’d expect. Have a re-read if you fancy.

I’d like to thank my followers and my fellow bloggers for educating me and occasionally referencing me J.

See you soon!

Kate x

Rising Sea levels, Raising water issues in Tuvalu

As this will be one of my lasts posts I thought it would be appropriate to leave with talking about the most famous Pacific Island when it comes to Climate Change - Tuvalu. I’ll be looking at the issues faced by climate change and what they will do to try and alleviate these problems, which I feel reflects the topics I have raised in previous posts.

Tuvalu is one of the smallest nations in terms of national economy, land mass and population size. When they claimed independence from Britain in 1978, they were advised by the British to join with Kiribati as their soils were infertile, they have limited flora and fauna, and lack many resources (Aalsberberg andHay, 1992).  They have the typical issues of small islands states, but they could be worse, due to remittances (which contribute to 20% of national income) and foreign aid Tuvalu is better off than many other small islands (Asian Development Bank, 2002). 

Despite doing well from remittances and foreign aid, their economy is still weak and their physical attributes – mainly being low lying, makes them extremely vulnerable to climate change (Connell 2003). A rise of mean sea level would lift the zone of flooding and intensify storm waves. This would erode the coast line, which would be accentuated by greater frequency of storms (Connell 2003). Land losses would create competition for land, reduce agricultural production, and resources from flora and fauna (Connell 2003).

Fishing would be affected as Mangrove habitats will be damaged. As well as reefs would also be eroded, disturbing lagoon ecology (Connell 2003).

Islands above a certain size (about 1.5 hectares) contain a permanent lens of fresh water surrounded by salt water (Connell 2003). The volume is proportionate to the land size, so loss of land would create a loss in freshwater. This is worsened, less land increases the frequency of overwash, so water is contaminated by salt water (Connell 2003). Overwash would also increase coastal erosion and greater incidence of storms. Not only does drinking water become undrinkable but agriculture becomes affected too, with the soil not being the best already supplying it with salt water would only damage crop production further (Roy and Connell, 1991). The green house affect will also affect rainwater, provided another issue for water availability. Water scarcity has been talked about in previous posts, although loss of land is an issue for any island, even more so for an island like Tuvalu as it is far too small and vulnerable to cope with land loss. Although the issue of imagined geographies has already been examined and I am now presenting Tuvalu in this vulnerable state, they will still be experiencing the effects worse than most as they do have fewer resources to cope.

As many are aware emigration has been a method of adapting to climate change, some adaptation has been less extreme. De-salinization plants have been built to cope with the water issues created by climate change. This video shows the sort of methods used to conserve water and therefore live on the island with satisfying water availability.  

The video presented a few ways of conserving water, desalinisation is attractive but very expensive. Therefore UNESCO has advised collecting rainwater to be the main priority (Indymedia Climate 2005). Education was highlighted as being essential, as well as government intervention such as changing bank loan policies so that water tanks are mandatory (Indymedia Climate 2005).

An extreme response to the effects caused by climate change is emigration. In 2001 New Zealand accepted Tuvaluans as ‘environmental refugees’(Indymedia Climate2005). Around 3,000 refugees have been sent to New Zealand, but emigration is looking less promising (Indymedia Climate 2005). Australia have said they will not recognise Tuvaluans as environmental refugees and New Zealand have stringent migration requirements so the sick, elderly and poor are less able to migrate (Indymedia Climate 2005). Migration is an extreme measure, which some do not realise when articles indicate that the island will physically disappear which it will not. Tuvaluans do not want to leave, they decided to be a small country and not join Kiribati to save their culture, they do not want to jeopardise that again. This video presents some of the other options to adapting to climate change:

Although for the pessimist it seems migration seems to be the inevitable as demonstrated in this video. 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSpDsP58udM

Tuvalu, Canary in a coalmine?

The issue of sea level rise is often demonstrated with Tuvalu. Since the late 1980s Tuvalu has been identified as threatened by sea level rise from Climate Change (Connell 2003). Tuvalu has been given a stage on the political arena, provided with politicians to represent them in climate affairs, as well as being the poster child for the effects of Climate change (Fabotko 2010). Tuvalu has been mentioned (not in name) in Al Gores ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ and is used to publicise the effects of Climate Change to; politicians at climate debates, for example at Copenhagen; and to provoke countries and the public into action.

It is incredible how its name has become so known, with no internal conflict, nuclear testing or natural disaster so have been of little interest to journalists and neighbouring countries. However now they play an important role in Climate Change discourse. They are seen as Climate refugees, as imagined geographies have presented them as country too small and poor to be without foreign aid, and to solve their issues would be to move to mainland countries such as Australia (Fabotko 2010).

Tuvalu has also been the ‘global showcase’ for renewable energies, French environmentalists have made efforts to rid all their islands of fossil fuels (Fabotko 2010). Why is it so attractive to journalists and environmentalists? I suppose it is a site where uncertainty about global climate change is miniaturised and resolved in and through the quest to know if the sea around it is rising. Tuvalu has been compared to the metaphor ‘canary in a coalmine’ which indicates that Tuvalu is not a value in itself but is important to a larger (global) environmental purpose (Fabotko 2010).

Tuvalu has become a space where the fate of the planet is brought forward in time and miniaturised in space;

‘reduced to a performance of rising seas and climate refugees played out for those with most control over the current and future uses of fossil fuels.’ (Farbutko 2010 page 8)

In this way we can view Tuvalu as an ‘Island Laboratory’, it can show us a scenario of what to come (Fabotko 2010). As Tuvalu is a major player in Climate Change discourse there have been representational leaps from the island being a ‘marginal laboratory’ to an ‘expendable laboratory’ in pursuit of the larger purpose of saving the world (Fabotko 2010). This view has led to exaggeration of the threats facing Tuvalu. For example environmentalist, Mark Lynas, has a strong desire for Tuvalu to be almost uninhabitable (Fabotko 2010). He made a piece about rising sea levels affecting the high tides in Tuvalu, in which he has a photograph of a man, two children with a barbeque knee deep in water (Fabotko 2010). It represents the high tides that have been occurring more often due to climate change. However it has been criticised as it is a misleading photograph and has been presented in may reputable sources such as UNESCO which adds validity to the image. Although high tides have been occurring more frequently, they occur around three times a year, and last a few days (Fabotko 2010). There are many like Lynas who are over exaggerating the effects of climate change in Tuvalu which should be kept in mind when looking at the island (Fabotko 2010).  

Which is why I found it interesting to find a BBC news article about low lying Pacific Islands growing not sinking. It claimed that a new geological survey showed the islands of Tuvalu, Kiribati and the Federated States of Micronesia were indeed expanding because of coral debris and sediment (Bryant 2010). The study showed that 27 islands over the last 60 years have remained stable, and some have grown (Zukerman2010). Historical images and satellite photography showed that 80% of the islands had remained the same or had got bigger (Bryant 2010). Scientists believe many of the islands will still be around for another 100 years (Zukerman 2010). Although there are some issues with this article: historical images can be subjective, and although they may not be sinking these islands are still under threat from sea level rise. Although land may not be getting scarcer the issues of salt water contamination, inundation and coastal erosion are still issues brought on by climate change.  

Honey, I am talking about the Honeycreepers

I couldn’t leave just one post to the Honeycreepers, these birds are fascinating creatures. Endemic to Hawaii they hold much scientific interest as they are an example of adaptive radiation, in other words an example of natural selection (ScienceDaily 2011) (Guardian 2011).

There was once at least 56 species, but only 18 now remain (Guardian 2011). This valuable and delicate species is at a greater threat now due to climate change.

The transmission of pox and malaria in Hawaii depends on climatic conditions, seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall in particular influence the increase or decrease mosquito populations (USGS 2009).

Hawaii provided safe refuges for birds in its more mountainous areas as their usual habitats in the wet forests on lower ground have become malaria . It is thought this area of higher altitude explained why the Honeycreepers were not completely wiped out the first time these non native diseases were introduced (USGS 2009). However the temperature in the mountains is increasing, putting Honeycreepers at a higher risk of contracting pox or malaria. Today, native Hawaiian birds face one of the highest rates of extinction in the world, only three species of Honeycreepers is in decent shape (USGS 2009).The Po‘ouli became extinct in 2004 (Pratt 2009) demonstrating the fragility to their species. 

It is thought if the 2ᵒC increase does happen around 60 to 96 % of the high-elevation disease refuges will vanish (USGS 2009).

The tropical inversion layer which is the thin cloud that surrounds the upper parts of the mountains will soon play a larger role in Honeycreepers survival. With the increase in temperature the layer has become more frequent. The tropical inversion layer affects plant growth so will make habitats further up, away from malaria risk areas, inhospitable for Honeycreepers (USGS 2009).

Deforestation could further alter the patterns of malaria transmission (Sehgal 2009). Deforestation, for example, of the Alaka`I Wilderness Preserve on Kaua`I Island could adjust the pattern of seasonal transmission of avian malaria to a pattern of continuous yearly transmission (Atkinson and LaPointe, 2009).

Natural resistance to avian malaria has developed in one species, the Hawaii amakihi, which is more populous in lower parts of the forest than more elevated areas despite high levels of mosquitoes (Woodworth et al 2005; Kilpatrick et al 2006). It is thought that good habitat management could help other honeycreepers develop some resistance to avian malaria (Kilpatrick 2006). However; warming may be increasing at a rate that will make it impossible for Hawaiian birds to develop a resistance in time. It looks like humans will need to take action or these valuable bird species will be overwhelmed by global warming (Miller 2012). 

Previous posts have focused much more on the effects climate change has on humans, we need to also remember the other creatures that are affected.

Reference

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Warmer Weather Creeping out the Honey

The recent publication of ‘Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts’ a report developed by the Pacific Islands Regional Climate Assessment (PIRCA 2012) has been the inspiration for my recent blog posts. It has helped provide new information and reiterate previous knowledge on the effects of Climate Change in the Pacific.

Something that I found interesting and relating to my new muse – Hawaii, is the warmer weather effecting bird populations.

The warmer weather has been encouraging the population of non-native mosquitoes. These mosquitoes have been spreading avian malaria which has seriously damaged bird populations (Sehgal 2012). More than 40 mosquito species have been captured in Hawaii, six have become established, most recently in 2004 (LaPonte & Burgett, 2005). The first mosquito to arrive was in 1826 (Atkinson & LaPointe, 2009b). The malaria parasite arrived later, around 1871, with the introduction of non-native birds (Miller 2012). The southern house mosquito is the vector for avian malaria and avian pox, which was one of the first to arrive (Miller 2012). Honeycreepers have mortality rates as high as 65% to 90% after been bitten just once (Miller 2012). 

Avian malaria is a diseased caused by a species of protozoan parasites (Plasmodium) that infect birds (USGS 2005). Due to climate change and the increasing temperature in the Pacific region this malaria has been able to spread. As mosquitos are new to the Hawaii environment, the birds on the island have not evolved with natural exposure to avian malaria (USGS 2005). Hawaiian honeycreepers are extremely susceptible.

Hawaii has a wide spectrum of climatic zones and habitats. These differ in rainfall, temperature and elevation which all influence the prevalence of avian malaria (USGS 2005). Mosquitos prefer wet and low elevation environments. Therefore birds who prefer a similar habitat will be at a higher risk. Honeycreepers are amongst the most susceptible, even the ones who survive acute malaria develop chronic malaria which will last for the birds lifetime (USGS 2005).

references

Atkinson, C. T., LaPointe, D. A., Hart, P. J., Spiegel, C. S., Tweed, E. J., Henneman, C., et al. (2005). ‘Host population persistence in the face of introduced vectorborne diseases: Hawaii Amakihi and avian malaria’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 5, 1531–1536.

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Being sensible in Hawaii, mitigate, save the Taro!

As established in my previous post; water insecurity is a risk facing the lower lying Pacific islands. Hawaii has taken steps to mitigate the problem. Each year, the Weather Forecast Office (WFO) in Honolulu uses national El Niño and La Niña outlooks from National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to create island-level forecasts for Hawaii (Keener 2012). The WFO uses this for television, radio, and electronic newsletters to inform policymakers, managers and communities about the potential seasonal impacts of an El Niño or La Niña event (Keener 2012).

In October 2010, the WFO predicted an above-average winter rainfall. PVT Land Company in Nanakuli, used these predictions and took steps to mitigate the climate risks. The company’s Taro crops in previous years had been destroyed by saltwater inundation at Lukunoch Attol, Chuuck State (Keener 2012). It takes around two years of normal rainfall to flush brackish water out of a taro patch (Keener 2012). If no more saltwater inundation takes place there is still a five year gap before the next harvest (Hezel, 2009). Managers decided to upgrade infrastructure that would divert and hold large amounts of stormwater (Keener 2012). By the end of November 2010, PVT had finished upgrading its storm drainage system and retention ponds. The effects of the rainfall were therefore limited in its damage. However this is not true for everyone on the Island. Other local landfills could not handle the intense rainfall and had to close down. They also released hazardous untreated water and waste onto local beaches (Keener 2012). Unlike PVT which was open the next day. PVT saved millions by this preventative measure, provides a good example of how using climate change data and acting accordingly can save money and time. 

This does show that only companies who can afford to take these measures have this option. Many companies will be unable to afford such infrastructural changes, there are measures in place to provide countries affected by climate change, so why aren’t they using it more effectively?

Many Pacific Islands are finding it difficult to access the millions in Global Funding available for Climate Change (Hawkins 2007). Coral Siale Pasisi, the Regional and International Issues Advisor at the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, says the complexities of accessing Climate Change fund are formidable and Pacific nations need expert assistance as well as stronger more accountable finance systems if they are to tap these funds (Hawkins 2007). This is less of an issue for an island like Hawaii as it is part of the USA, but for some of the smaller islands like Kiribati, they have fewer resources to tap into funds and get the help they need. Although some islands feel resentful of the view that they are vulnerable. At the Port Vila briefing on climate change, there were some at the table who felt that dependence on overseas aid for adaption and mitigation programmes were not necessary and that the Pacific Islands position on climate change should shift from that of vulnerability to value (Hawkins 2007). Some of the speakers felt it was important to harness the value of the island to fund for their measures against climate change. In the case of Kiribati, tuna is an important resource, and should be fished sustainably which will be less polluting and more profitable long term (Hawkins2007).

The Link for Keener no longer works so this is its reference

Keener, V. (2012) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press