Warmer Weather Creeping out the Honey

The recent publication of ‘Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts’ a report developed by the Pacific Islands Regional Climate Assessment (PIRCA 2012) has been the inspiration for my recent blog posts. It has helped provide new information and reiterate previous knowledge on the effects of Climate Change in the Pacific.

Something that I found interesting and relating to my new muse – Hawaii, is the warmer weather effecting bird populations.

The warmer weather has been encouraging the population of non-native mosquitoes. These mosquitoes have been spreading avian malaria which has seriously damaged bird populations (Sehgal 2012). More than 40 mosquito species have been captured in Hawaii, six have become established, most recently in 2004 (LaPonte & Burgett, 2005). The first mosquito to arrive was in 1826 (Atkinson & LaPointe, 2009b). The malaria parasite arrived later, around 1871, with the introduction of non-native birds (Miller 2012). The southern house mosquito is the vector for avian malaria and avian pox, which was one of the first to arrive (Miller 2012). Honeycreepers have mortality rates as high as 65% to 90% after been bitten just once (Miller 2012). 

Avian malaria is a diseased caused by a species of protozoan parasites (Plasmodium) that infect birds (USGS 2005). Due to climate change and the increasing temperature in the Pacific region this malaria has been able to spread. As mosquitos are new to the Hawaii environment, the birds on the island have not evolved with natural exposure to avian malaria (USGS 2005). Hawaiian honeycreepers are extremely susceptible.

Hawaii has a wide spectrum of climatic zones and habitats. These differ in rainfall, temperature and elevation which all influence the prevalence of avian malaria (USGS 2005). Mosquitos prefer wet and low elevation environments. Therefore birds who prefer a similar habitat will be at a higher risk. Honeycreepers are amongst the most susceptible, even the ones who survive acute malaria develop chronic malaria which will last for the birds lifetime (USGS 2005).

references

Atkinson, C. T., LaPointe, D. A., Hart, P. J., Spiegel, C. S., Tweed, E. J., Henneman, C., et al. (2005). ‘Host population persistence in the face of introduced vectorborne diseases: Hawaii Amakihi and avian malaria’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 5, 1531–1536.

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Being sensible in Hawaii, mitigate, save the Taro!

As established in my previous post; water insecurity is a risk facing the lower lying Pacific islands. Hawaii has taken steps to mitigate the problem. Each year, the Weather Forecast Office (WFO) in Honolulu uses national El Niño and La Niña outlooks from National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to create island-level forecasts for Hawaii (Keener 2012). The WFO uses this for television, radio, and electronic newsletters to inform policymakers, managers and communities about the potential seasonal impacts of an El Niño or La Niña event (Keener 2012).

In October 2010, the WFO predicted an above-average winter rainfall. PVT Land Company in Nanakuli, used these predictions and took steps to mitigate the climate risks. The company’s Taro crops in previous years had been destroyed by saltwater inundation at Lukunoch Attol, Chuuck State (Keener 2012). It takes around two years of normal rainfall to flush brackish water out of a taro patch (Keener 2012). If no more saltwater inundation takes place there is still a five year gap before the next harvest (Hezel, 2009). Managers decided to upgrade infrastructure that would divert and hold large amounts of stormwater (Keener 2012). By the end of November 2010, PVT had finished upgrading its storm drainage system and retention ponds. The effects of the rainfall were therefore limited in its damage. However this is not true for everyone on the Island. Other local landfills could not handle the intense rainfall and had to close down. They also released hazardous untreated water and waste onto local beaches (Keener 2012). Unlike PVT which was open the next day. PVT saved millions by this preventative measure, provides a good example of how using climate change data and acting accordingly can save money and time. 

This does show that only companies who can afford to take these measures have this option. Many companies will be unable to afford such infrastructural changes, there are measures in place to provide countries affected by climate change, so why aren’t they using it more effectively?

Many Pacific Islands are finding it difficult to access the millions in Global Funding available for Climate Change (Hawkins 2007). Coral Siale Pasisi, the Regional and International Issues Advisor at the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, says the complexities of accessing Climate Change fund are formidable and Pacific nations need expert assistance as well as stronger more accountable finance systems if they are to tap these funds (Hawkins 2007). This is less of an issue for an island like Hawaii as it is part of the USA, but for some of the smaller islands like Kiribati, they have fewer resources to tap into funds and get the help they need. Although some islands feel resentful of the view that they are vulnerable. At the Port Vila briefing on climate change, there were some at the table who felt that dependence on overseas aid for adaption and mitigation programmes were not necessary and that the Pacific Islands position on climate change should shift from that of vulnerability to value (Hawkins 2007). Some of the speakers felt it was important to harness the value of the island to fund for their measures against climate change. In the case of Kiribati, tuna is an important resource, and should be fished sustainably which will be less polluting and more profitable long term (Hawkins2007).

The Link for Keener no longer works so this is its reference

Keener, V. (2012) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press 

While we say 'rain rain go away' Pacific say 'come back today'

Water insecurity is an increasing risk from climate change. Water security is more of an issue on the low lying islands in the South Pacific. They are at a higher risk of droughts and saltwater inundation caused by high tides (Anthony 2012). Drinking water comes from two sources: rainwater catchments, and shallow wells with a layer of freshwater underlain by saltwater or brackish water (Anthony2012).  The latter is used for cultivation. The freshwater layer (lens) is vulnerable to contamination from the saltwater below, especially if too much freshwater is drawn from the lens (Anthony 2012).

Droughts adversely affect water security, and small islands are vulnerable to them. Events like El Nino can bring on severe ones, a destructive example being El Nino 1997-98. Between January and April 1998, Majuro Atoll in the Marshall Islands received only 85% of the normal rainfall for the period (Presley 2005). Reduced rainfall puts a higher strain on groundwater resources, and when these are over used saltwater contaminates the supply. Health concerns are great from drought, in Majuro water was only provided for 10 hours every two weeks for its population. Health officials reported more than 1,000 cases of dehydration, drought related skin disease, and respiratory infections (Anthony 2012).

Monitoring has been put in place to minimize future effects of drought. Integrated management of rainwater and groundwater resources is critical for water security (Anthony 2012). Especially in less developed atoll islands in the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Federation States of Micronesia (Hamlin& Takasaki, 1996). 

One way to help alleviate chronic water supply shortages during droughts would be to develop groundwater resources for non-potable uses, where feasible, so that rainwater can be saved for drinking and cooking (Anthony 2012).

When its not drought disrupting water security, flooding does. In December 2007 and again in 2008, several atoll islands in the Federated States of Micronesia were flooded by a series of high-sea/surf events (Anthony 2012). These saltwater floods had a serious impact on taro crops as these are cultivated on low central parts of the island (Anthony 2012). The outer islands of Chuuck State, around 90% of all taro crops were destroyed by saltwater inundation (Hezel2009).

Flooding can be influenced by La Niña, higher sea levels occur because of the northeast trade winds increase during the second half of the year (Sweet 2012). In December 2008, La Niña conditions occurred, producing higher-than-normal sea levels (Sweet 2012).

So sorry but the link for the Anthony and Sweet has disappeared, so will have to be in hard copy I am afraid

Anothony, S. (2012) ‘Managing vulnerable water resources in atoll nations’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 1-2

Sweet, W. (2012) A combination of processes creates extreme water levels and contributes to flooding and erosion in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 6-10

Turn off that air conditioning! Fiji needs to mitigate

Another approach to combating the effects of climate change is mitigation. Whilst adaptation is dealing with the problems that have or will become apparent, mitigation deals with the causes of climate change.

          Energy is a major cost but a necessity for tourism. The cost of this energy is not just financial but also environmental, and is contributing to the global issue of climate change. There have been poor efforts to change on the island, which is why mitigation needs to be seriously considered.

‘Nine out of the 25 businesses in the survey did not name any measures in place for reducing energy consumption’ (Becken 2005 page 388).

Other measures are not doing enough. Unfortunately some can be costly, changing from one generator to a smaller one at night is more energy efficient but too expensive for most businesses, so they choose to waste energy instead (Becken2005). Two major energy uses were noted:

-         Air conditioning and

-         Laundry

Air conditioning can be cut down by only being operational at night, as well as planting more trees for shade (Becken2005).

The main focus on reducing energy costs of laundry is reducing water temperature, some budget accommodation only supply cold showers (Becken 2005). A number of businesses operate solar heating systems, however not many use photovoltaic systems which are far more efficient (Becken2005).

Many islanders believe such technologies are expensive as they are imported but this is incorrect. According to The Department of Energy, solar radiation is more cost effective than diesel generators (Department of Energy, 2003). Photovoltaic systems have the advantage that they are silent (as opposed to diesel generators), reliable, require little maintenance, have low operating costs and are easy to install, as well as being environmentally friendly (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003). There is often a misconception that solar panels use more energy than they make, the carbon footprint of solar panels is one-tenth that of plants burning fossil fuels (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). The efficiency of the panel also depends on the types of materials used, even so most solar panels will pay back 9 -17 times the energy cost (TenBruggencate 2012)

However, they may be vulnerable to storm damage and salt deposit (Becken 2005).

          There are lots of options for reducing the amount of energy used for lighting. Energy efficient light bulbs, sensor garden lighting, solar panel lighting, and room keys activating lights in rooms (Becken 2005).

          Hotel owners and tourist businesses don’t like to educate tourists in energy efficiency as they want them to be relaxing and enjoying their holiday, one resort manager said:

‘Tourists are not here to worry about air conditioning’ (Becken 2005: page 388.).

Relating back to the adaptation Fiji blog post; coconut oil can be used for a biofuel, which will decrease importation and be more environmentally friendly (Becken2005). Importation is essential on the island as it’s too small to produce everything it needs and wants, other ways in which they have tried to reduce the amount of shipments is to combine passenger vessels with food and other commodities (Becken 2005).     

          I have found while researching mitigation strategies for Pacific Islands the actions taken place have not been so extensive as they have been for adaption. I suppose adaptive strategies are far more appealing because they alleviate direct problems, while mitigation is helping the global issue of climate change rather than the local problems. There is a higher level of uncertainty with mitigation, which makes it unattractive for governments to invest in mitigation schemes (Montz and Gruntfest 2002). This attitude will need to be changed in order to combat climate change, and Fiji have made some efforts but more is needed.