Warmer Weather Creeping out the Honey

The recent publication of ‘Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts’ a report developed by the Pacific Islands Regional Climate Assessment (PIRCA 2012) has been the inspiration for my recent blog posts. It has helped provide new information and reiterate previous knowledge on the effects of Climate Change in the Pacific.

Something that I found interesting and relating to my new muse – Hawaii, is the warmer weather effecting bird populations.

The warmer weather has been encouraging the population of non-native mosquitoes. These mosquitoes have been spreading avian malaria which has seriously damaged bird populations (Sehgal 2012). More than 40 mosquito species have been captured in Hawaii, six have become established, most recently in 2004 (LaPonte & Burgett, 2005). The first mosquito to arrive was in 1826 (Atkinson & LaPointe, 2009b). The malaria parasite arrived later, around 1871, with the introduction of non-native birds (Miller 2012). The southern house mosquito is the vector for avian malaria and avian pox, which was one of the first to arrive (Miller 2012). Honeycreepers have mortality rates as high as 65% to 90% after been bitten just once (Miller 2012). 

Avian malaria is a diseased caused by a species of protozoan parasites (Plasmodium) that infect birds (USGS 2005). Due to climate change and the increasing temperature in the Pacific region this malaria has been able to spread. As mosquitos are new to the Hawaii environment, the birds on the island have not evolved with natural exposure to avian malaria (USGS 2005). Hawaiian honeycreepers are extremely susceptible.

Hawaii has a wide spectrum of climatic zones and habitats. These differ in rainfall, temperature and elevation which all influence the prevalence of avian malaria (USGS 2005). Mosquitos prefer wet and low elevation environments. Therefore birds who prefer a similar habitat will be at a higher risk. Honeycreepers are amongst the most susceptible, even the ones who survive acute malaria develop chronic malaria which will last for the birds lifetime (USGS 2005).

references

Atkinson, C. T., LaPointe, D. A., Hart, P. J., Spiegel, C. S., Tweed, E. J., Henneman, C., et al. (2005). ‘Host population persistence in the face of introduced vectorborne diseases: Hawaii Amakihi and avian malaria’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 5, 1531–1536.

Miller, S. (2012) ‘Climate Change Threatens Hawaiian Forest Birds’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 11-12

Being sensible in Hawaii, mitigate, save the Taro!

As established in my previous post; water insecurity is a risk facing the lower lying Pacific islands. Hawaii has taken steps to mitigate the problem. Each year, the Weather Forecast Office (WFO) in Honolulu uses national El Niño and La Niña outlooks from National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to create island-level forecasts for Hawaii (Keener 2012). The WFO uses this for television, radio, and electronic newsletters to inform policymakers, managers and communities about the potential seasonal impacts of an El Niño or La Niña event (Keener 2012).

In October 2010, the WFO predicted an above-average winter rainfall. PVT Land Company in Nanakuli, used these predictions and took steps to mitigate the climate risks. The company’s Taro crops in previous years had been destroyed by saltwater inundation at Lukunoch Attol, Chuuck State (Keener 2012). It takes around two years of normal rainfall to flush brackish water out of a taro patch (Keener 2012). If no more saltwater inundation takes place there is still a five year gap before the next harvest (Hezel, 2009). Managers decided to upgrade infrastructure that would divert and hold large amounts of stormwater (Keener 2012). By the end of November 2010, PVT had finished upgrading its storm drainage system and retention ponds. The effects of the rainfall were therefore limited in its damage. However this is not true for everyone on the Island. Other local landfills could not handle the intense rainfall and had to close down. They also released hazardous untreated water and waste onto local beaches (Keener 2012). Unlike PVT which was open the next day. PVT saved millions by this preventative measure, provides a good example of how using climate change data and acting accordingly can save money and time. 

This does show that only companies who can afford to take these measures have this option. Many companies will be unable to afford such infrastructural changes, there are measures in place to provide countries affected by climate change, so why aren’t they using it more effectively?

Many Pacific Islands are finding it difficult to access the millions in Global Funding available for Climate Change (Hawkins 2007). Coral Siale Pasisi, the Regional and International Issues Advisor at the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, says the complexities of accessing Climate Change fund are formidable and Pacific nations need expert assistance as well as stronger more accountable finance systems if they are to tap these funds (Hawkins 2007). This is less of an issue for an island like Hawaii as it is part of the USA, but for some of the smaller islands like Kiribati, they have fewer resources to tap into funds and get the help they need. Although some islands feel resentful of the view that they are vulnerable. At the Port Vila briefing on climate change, there were some at the table who felt that dependence on overseas aid for adaption and mitigation programmes were not necessary and that the Pacific Islands position on climate change should shift from that of vulnerability to value (Hawkins 2007). Some of the speakers felt it was important to harness the value of the island to fund for their measures against climate change. In the case of Kiribati, tuna is an important resource, and should be fished sustainably which will be less polluting and more profitable long term (Hawkins2007).

The Link for Keener no longer works so this is its reference

Keener, V. (2012) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press 

While we say 'rain rain go away' Pacific say 'come back today'

Water insecurity is an increasing risk from climate change. Water security is more of an issue on the low lying islands in the South Pacific. They are at a higher risk of droughts and saltwater inundation caused by high tides (Anthony 2012). Drinking water comes from two sources: rainwater catchments, and shallow wells with a layer of freshwater underlain by saltwater or brackish water (Anthony2012).  The latter is used for cultivation. The freshwater layer (lens) is vulnerable to contamination from the saltwater below, especially if too much freshwater is drawn from the lens (Anthony 2012).

Droughts adversely affect water security, and small islands are vulnerable to them. Events like El Nino can bring on severe ones, a destructive example being El Nino 1997-98. Between January and April 1998, Majuro Atoll in the Marshall Islands received only 85% of the normal rainfall for the period (Presley 2005). Reduced rainfall puts a higher strain on groundwater resources, and when these are over used saltwater contaminates the supply. Health concerns are great from drought, in Majuro water was only provided for 10 hours every two weeks for its population. Health officials reported more than 1,000 cases of dehydration, drought related skin disease, and respiratory infections (Anthony 2012).

Monitoring has been put in place to minimize future effects of drought. Integrated management of rainwater and groundwater resources is critical for water security (Anthony 2012). Especially in less developed atoll islands in the Republic of the Marshall Islands and Federation States of Micronesia (Hamlin& Takasaki, 1996). 

One way to help alleviate chronic water supply shortages during droughts would be to develop groundwater resources for non-potable uses, where feasible, so that rainwater can be saved for drinking and cooking (Anthony 2012).

When its not drought disrupting water security, flooding does. In December 2007 and again in 2008, several atoll islands in the Federated States of Micronesia were flooded by a series of high-sea/surf events (Anthony 2012). These saltwater floods had a serious impact on taro crops as these are cultivated on low central parts of the island (Anthony 2012). The outer islands of Chuuck State, around 90% of all taro crops were destroyed by saltwater inundation (Hezel2009).

Flooding can be influenced by La Niña, higher sea levels occur because of the northeast trade winds increase during the second half of the year (Sweet 2012). In December 2008, La Niña conditions occurred, producing higher-than-normal sea levels (Sweet 2012).

So sorry but the link for the Anthony and Sweet has disappeared, so will have to be in hard copy I am afraid

Anothony, S. (2012) ‘Managing vulnerable water resources in atoll nations’, in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 1-2

Sweet, W. (2012) A combination of processes creates extreme water levels and contributes to flooding and erosion in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 6-10

Turn off that air conditioning! Fiji needs to mitigate

Another approach to combating the effects of climate change is mitigation. Whilst adaptation is dealing with the problems that have or will become apparent, mitigation deals with the causes of climate change.

          Energy is a major cost but a necessity for tourism. The cost of this energy is not just financial but also environmental, and is contributing to the global issue of climate change. There have been poor efforts to change on the island, which is why mitigation needs to be seriously considered.

‘Nine out of the 25 businesses in the survey did not name any measures in place for reducing energy consumption’ (Becken 2005 page 388).

Other measures are not doing enough. Unfortunately some can be costly, changing from one generator to a smaller one at night is more energy efficient but too expensive for most businesses, so they choose to waste energy instead (Becken2005). Two major energy uses were noted:

-         Air conditioning and

-         Laundry

Air conditioning can be cut down by only being operational at night, as well as planting more trees for shade (Becken2005).

The main focus on reducing energy costs of laundry is reducing water temperature, some budget accommodation only supply cold showers (Becken 2005). A number of businesses operate solar heating systems, however not many use photovoltaic systems which are far more efficient (Becken2005).

Many islanders believe such technologies are expensive as they are imported but this is incorrect. According to The Department of Energy, solar radiation is more cost effective than diesel generators (Department of Energy, 2003). Photovoltaic systems have the advantage that they are silent (as opposed to diesel generators), reliable, require little maintenance, have low operating costs and are easy to install, as well as being environmentally friendly (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003). There is often a misconception that solar panels use more energy than they make, the carbon footprint of solar panels is one-tenth that of plants burning fossil fuels (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006). The efficiency of the panel also depends on the types of materials used, even so most solar panels will pay back 9 -17 times the energy cost (TenBruggencate 2012)

However, they may be vulnerable to storm damage and salt deposit (Becken 2005).

          There are lots of options for reducing the amount of energy used for lighting. Energy efficient light bulbs, sensor garden lighting, solar panel lighting, and room keys activating lights in rooms (Becken 2005).

          Hotel owners and tourist businesses don’t like to educate tourists in energy efficiency as they want them to be relaxing and enjoying their holiday, one resort manager said:

‘Tourists are not here to worry about air conditioning’ (Becken 2005: page 388.).

Relating back to the adaptation Fiji blog post; coconut oil can be used for a biofuel, which will decrease importation and be more environmentally friendly (Becken2005). Importation is essential on the island as it’s too small to produce everything it needs and wants, other ways in which they have tried to reduce the amount of shipments is to combine passenger vessels with food and other commodities (Becken 2005).     

          I have found while researching mitigation strategies for Pacific Islands the actions taken place have not been so extensive as they have been for adaption. I suppose adaptive strategies are far more appealing because they alleviate direct problems, while mitigation is helping the global issue of climate change rather than the local problems. There is a higher level of uncertainty with mitigation, which makes it unattractive for governments to invest in mitigation schemes (Montz and Gruntfest 2002). This attitude will need to be changed in order to combat climate change, and Fiji have made some efforts but more is needed. 

Reinvestment in the sugar industry in Fiji

A useful video I found on the sugar industry in Fiji

It talks about the SRIF, which is the Sugar Research unit the government has set up. They have been looking into ways in which to maximize production, they also work on a local level with farmers, educating them into different farming methods as well as providing land for them. They also provide livestock, and a range of seeds in order to improve the lives of subsistence farmers. They provide financial assistance which can enable farmers to earn a living and not just survive on the land. 

Adapting in Fiji, more stressful than you'd expect

So we have established that climate change is threatening Fiji and adaptation is necessary.

Tourist accommodation is now built with cyclone-proofing; however issues have been raised, interviews conducted on the island found

'It's much easier to build cyclone proofing in new developments but expensive and difficult to incorporate this in old, established buildings' (Becken 2005).

New resorts are built around 2.6m above the average sea level to avoid the issues of sea level rise (Becken 2005). The loss of sand as a result of cyclones, changing wind patterns and sea level rise is a major problem, especially in low sandy islands such as Beachcomber Island (Becken 2005).

Despite knowing the importance of mangroves for coastal protection, people are still cutting them down in order to free up space for further developments (Becken 2005). The sedimentation has put stress on the coral reefs. Therefore there has been action to plant more mangroves and coconut trees, however this has been moving the erosion elsewhere (Becken 2005).

Coral reefs have been damaged, and Fijians are focusing on reducing human effects such as pollution rather than focusing on ocean acidification. Fijian resorts have designated areas of the reefs for tourist use, so that not all the reef is disturbed (Becken 2005). Tourists are told not to touch or take whilst snorkeling or scuba diving. Fishing boats have been instructed not to set anchor on reefs, and people are not to walk on reefs (Becken 2005). Reefs that are not already under pressure from pollution and sedimentation are more likely to cope with increases in water temperature than stressed reefs. Therefore an important adaptive measure is to protect the coral reefs around tourist resorts (Becken 2005).

Sea level rise has increased the incidence of salt water intrusion. Adaptive strategies have been to encourage the use garden waste and shredded paper, cardboard or coconut shells to retain soil moisture so that salt water and flooding doesn’t affect agriculture as much as it could, and keep tourists connected to a plentiful water supply (Becken 2005). The use of grey water or recycled water can be used for irrigation. Grey water reservoirs can be used for fire fighting, and run toilets with saltwater or recycled water for flushing (Becken 2005). There are also technological solutions for water-conserving showers and toilets (e.g dual flush). Rainwater collection is possible, but this adaptation measure is problematic in that considerable space is required for water storage (Becken 2005). Underground tanks are a solution for newly designed resorts. However septic tanks can be expensive to buy and run for communities and some resorts (Becken 2005).

How could we improve adaptation strategies?

Social capital has been discussed in order to improve adaptation strategies (Adger 2003). It is seen to improve democracy and reduce the gap of winners and losers. Marginalised groups can often be ignored by governments, so it is important to incorporate civil society in decision making. When reading about the adaptive strategies in Fiji talked about in Beckens paper, I felt not enough was being done for people employed in other sectors not involved in tourism. Of course protecting the tourist industry is important as it's a major part of Fijis economy, but it is risky having such great independence on one export. The government to some extent have tried to encourage other areas of the economy. They have reinvested in the sugar cane industry with the creation of the Sugar Research Unit in 2005 (SRIF 2010). The government have also focused some attention to their coconut industry, coconut oil can be used as a biofuel, and when crude oil is becoming more expensive, biofuels can help costs internally and be a useful export (Islands Business International 2007). 

Pacific Coping Strategies

Next couple of posts will be about the strategies proposed or in place to combat the effects of climate change. In this one I will be focusing on the island Fiji, more about how climate change is affecting the island, coping strategies will come later.

To start off the theme, there are two main types of coping strategies; adaption and mitigation. Adaption will be a big talking point; it’s the most popular method:

Adaption; the ideal would be to create a shell, like the hermit crab and create our own perfect microhabitat (Reese 1969). Although saying that, humans have been adapting to climate change since the start of our very existence, we have an inherent capacity for it (Adger 2003). Adaption is a strategy that all Pacific Islands will have to consider when combating the effects of climate change. 

Climate change is attacking social, political and economic stability on most of the islands in the Pacific. Climate change is affecting tourism, which is the economic backbone for many island states.

Fiji is the most popular tourist destination in the South Pacific, however its tourist industry is volatile (Becken 2005). Fijis tourist trade will be affected by climate change through; the increased frequency and intensity of storms, and extreme weather events, but also through sea level rise, changing temperatures and precipitation patterns (Brecken 2005). As in other developing countries, this vulnerability is aggravated by limited institutional capacity, non-availability of technologies, ill-enforced regulatory frameworks, and lack of financing (Becken 2005)

In 1998, tourism earned F$568 million in foreign exchange, while sugar only earned F$244 million (Narayan, 2000). With the collapse of the sugar industry and increase in the tourist industry, tourism has become their largest and single most important asset to their economy (Becken 2005).

Selling Fiji to tourists is incredibly important, videos like this show how they sell themselves

About 90% of Fijis infrastructure and population reside in the low lying areas of the island (Becken 2005). This makes them vulnerable to flooding and salt water intrusion. Fiji is made up of a few islands, some being low lying attol islands (Maldives, Kiribas) and others being higher such as Viti Levu, these offer more room for activities further inland and away from the threat of rising sea levels (Becken 2005).

Coastal retreat is posing a threat to beaches and coastal activities for tourism. Over the last few decades the coast has retreated some 15-20 m in certain parts of Fiji (Mimura and Nunn 1994). Coastal retreat and erosion is being caused by changing wind patterns and strength (Becken 2005). Changes have been occurring in shoreline features. Insurance firms are resistant in including climate caused hazards in their claims, and investment in coastal areas have decreased (Becken 2005). Overall sea level variability and rise have been affecting tourism building stocks and beaches. Major coastal ecosystems will be damaged by climate change, corals and fishes have high touristic and economic value. Human impact on the environment, eg deforestation and pollution has reduced the capacity to cope with climate change impacts. 

On the 1st December there was an article written about the importance of adaptation in the Pacific. A UN study showed that island states could face losses of up to 18% of GDP from climate change (Observer 2012). The Pacific Environment and Climate Change Outlook (SPREP) said losses would result from sea level rise and extreme weather, combined with pressures from unsustainable fishing practices and coastal development. There are fears on some Islands that climate change will affect the life so severely that relocation is the adaption strategy, which is mentioned in a video I had previously posted in my blog (Marshall Island Video). As some of the affects of climate change have already occurred, adaption is a strategy all islands will have to follow. There are ongoing attempts to compliment these measures with mitigation strategies. The 18th UN Climate Change Conference in Doha, Qatar, should hopefully bring good news to the Pacific as it will encourage polluting countries to reduce their carbon emissions. Talks began on Monday and ends on December 7 (Observer 2012)

Easter Bleaching

Coral Bleaching is caused by various environmental factors; pollution being one (Japp and Wheaton 1979), lowered salinity (Egana andDiSalvo 1982), but most commonly and talked about in previous blogs – increased seawater temperatures.

Easter Island lies at the South East part of the Indo Pacific region. It has no structural reefs and hosts a desperate amount of fauna, demonstrated by its few species of corals (Wells 1972).

There have been records of mass expulsion of zooxanthellae (algae which live symbiotically in the cells of marine invertebrates) in corals around the mid-1980 (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). Heavy rainfall on 16th June 1980, divers who looked for corals for exportation noticed that the corals had begun to turn white on an island wide basis (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). The corals recovered gradually, it would take 2-3 months (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). It is thought that increased rainfall will decrease water salinity, sharp reduction of water salinity induces osmotic stress which brings on symbiont expulsion (Egana andDiSalvo 1982). Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, near shore areas, however with El Nino set to increase in severity and occurrence due to climate change may alter this (Glynn 1996). Climate change is set to increase rainfall and therefore lower salinity in waters causing coral bleaching.

As there is clear evidence that climate change, ENSO, sea temperature rise, and UVR are destroying corals, Glynn predicts a scenario where more or less continued warming with no return to optimal temperatures that would allow coral reef recovery. Threats also related to climate change (e.g. sea-level rise, increased solar irradiance, higher CO2 concentrations of ocean waters, changing patterns of rainfall, cyclonic storms and ocean circulation) are possible, and likely would interact with temperature rise (Glynn 1996). So depending on how we limit climate change and how the corals adapt to it, we could see a mass extinction of corals (Glynn 1996).

Easter Island is dependent on tourism and trade of Pacific goods such as corals (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). This makes them vulnerable as both of these things are becoming harder as climate change persists. The sea level rise and harsher storms are causing tourist boats not board Easter Island, as the choppy and high seas can make it dangerous for ships to go near its rocky shores (National Geographic 2012). This means tourism is decreasing and therefore creating a decline in its economy. Bleaching corals mean the quality of it decreases and is not suitable for export, also hitting the economy, it is suggested that Chile should invest more in its port to encourage tourism (National Geographic 2012).

If you want to read more about Easter Island, a blog I would recommend would be ‘Paradise Loss’, blogs 29.11.12 and 8.11.12 may be of interest to you.

Also if you have problems using my links for references:

Egana, A. DiSalvo, L. (1982) ‘Mass Expulsion of Zooxanthellae by Easter Island Corals’ Pacific Science, 36, 1, 61-3

Gylnn, P. (1996) ‘Coral reef bleaching: facts, hypotheses and implications’ Global Change Biology, 2, 6, 495-509

Japp, W. (1979) ‘Observations on Zooxanthellae Expulsion at Middle Sambo Reef, Florida Keys’, Bulletin of Marine Science, 29, 3, 414-22

Wells, J. (1972) ‘Notes on the IndoPacific scleractinian corals. Part 8.

Scleractinian corals from Easter Island’, Pac Sci 26: 183-190

Marshall Island Video

A video I found very useful on giving an insight on how climate change is affecting small island states

looking at not only the affects of bleaching but the other global issues such as sea level rise. It's useful to see more than just the physical affects of climate change, but also the political and social.

Coral Bleaching - Expelling Biodiversity

Corals are persistent, they have survived for tens of millions of years, through all the climate fluctuations of the Pleistocene and the Holocene (Stoddart 2008). You wouldn’t think they were candidates for extinction. However periods of mass coral extinctions have occurred before, up to 45% of all coral species went extinct around the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (Carpenter et al 2008). Corals are under threat; a major one being coral bleaching which is mainly caused by increased sea temperatures but also high solar irradiance and disease (Brown 1997). Coral reefs are among the most productive and diverse ecosystems; thousands of species coexist, meaning its vital to protect for biodiversity (Parker 2012). Coral bleaching is a whitening of corals due to loss of symbiotic algae and/or their pigments (Brown 1997). The problem of coral bleaching is far more serious than its loss of colour, it means that the home of many creatures has died and no longer provides food for marine species and therefore humans.

The region is diverse in terms of natural events. Climate change is, and will continue to, increase the frequency and intensity of these natural occurrences. These include; ENSO, tropical cyclones, floods and drought and by persistent features such as the trade winds and convergence zones (Hay et al 2002). Due to global warming, the Pacific region is warming by between 0.6 and 3.5ᵒC, a rate of warming which is much larger than the observed changes during the last century (Hay et al 2002). This will and has increased the occurrences of coral bleaching in the Pacific as corals bleach when water temperatures rise 1° to 2°C and persist over three or four weeks (Parker 2012). It is thought by some scientists that coral extinction may be coming again (Carpenter et al 2008). 

When sea temperature rises corals expel their symbionts, this causes colony death if the heat persists (Carpenter et al 2008). Although corals in the Pacific can cope in warm waters better than others due to ENSO, waters are getting warmer at a faster rate. A rate, that some scientists fear, is too quick for adaptation (Hay et al 2002). It is thought that the Pacific area will become more ‘ENSO like’, so wet areas will become wetter (increase in flooding), dry areas will become drier (increase in drought) and waters will become warmer (Hay et al 2002). Typhoons increasing in frequency and intensity will affect corals, strong typhoons mean corals are damaged for around 10 years (Stoddart 2008).

Increased damage from; natural occurrences (typhoons), sea temperature rise (coral bleaching), and over-fishing, is set to damage biodiversity in coral reefs considerably. 

Species closer to the sea surface are at a higher risk, the families that are most at risk are; Euphylliidae, Dendrophylliidae, and Acroporidae (Carpenter 2008). The species found in deeper reefs are less dependent on coral reeds as a habitat and the deeper waters are less affected by human and physical changes (Carpenter et al 2008). The proportion of threatened species is greatest in corals than terrestrial animal groups excluding amphibians (Carpenter et al 2008). Fish stocks are set to decline as coral bleaching increases, this spells out bad news when population sizes of the larger islands are set to increase (Lovell et al 2004).

The Reefs at Risk Revisted report predicts that by 2050 many Pacific reefs will bleach annually (Parker 2012).

Reference

Brown, B. (1997), ‘Coral Bleaching: Causes and Consequences’, Coral Reefs, 16, 5, 129-38 

Carpenter, K. et al (2008) ‘One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts’, Science, 321, 560-63

Hay, J. E. (2002), Climate variability and change and sea level rise in the Pacific Islands region: A resource book for policy and decision makers, educators and other stakeholders, Tokyo, Japan: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme and Japan Ministry of the Environment

Lovell, E. H. Sykes, M. Deiye, L. Wantiez, C. Garrigue, S. Virly, J. Samuelu, A. Solofa, T. Poulasi, K. Pakoa, A. Sabetian, D. Afzal, A. Hughes and R. Sulu, (2004), ‘Status of Coral Reefs in the South West Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu’, Australian Institute of Marine Science 2, 337-62

Parker, B. (2012) Pacific coral reef management in a changing climate in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 15-17

Stoddart, D. (2008), ‘Ecology and Morphology of Recent Coral Reefs’, Biological Reviews, 44, 4, 433-98

Climate Change Beauty Distroyer in Corals

Coral reefs are complex biological systems, they contain some of the highest concentrations of marine biodiversity. Corals have recreational, aesthetic and resource value (many examples can be found in detail in Hall's blog 27/10/12 post. They are important ecosystems, The Coral Triangle, which is found in the Pacific, has the highest proportion of species in all categories of elevated extinction risk. This risk has been amplified by climate change, but also by human activity (Carpenter et al 2008). 
            The threats that affect the islands work on a global and local scale.
Globally:

Ocean acidification (due to increased amounts of carbon dioxide): This will increase disease and fragility in calcifying organisms; reduce ocean carbonate ion concentrations; decrease growth rate of calcifying organisms; and reduce the ability for corals to build skeletons (Mumby and Steneck 2008).
Coral bleaching (due to increased sea temperatures from global warming): Increases disease in calcifying organisms; and reduce coral-based services (Mumby and Steneck 2008).
Sea level rise (due to global warming): increases flooding, coastal erosion, reduces freshwater and land area.

Locally:
Human disturbances: coastal development; sedimentation; sewage disposal; nutrient loading and eutrophication from agro-chemicals; coral mining; and over-fishing (Carpenter et al 2008).
            From humans damaging corals and not doing enough to protect them has meant a global deterioration of reef structure and their complex ecosystems (Carpenter et al 2008).

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The affects on corals through climate change have been diverse, the one I plan to follow up on in the next post will be coral bleaching and the sorts of things I want to look at are:

- The ways in which global warming is affecting corals.
- The biodiversity impacts that have and could occur with increased damage to corals.
- The scientific issues with making assumptions and measurements on what is happening to corals.
- What prevention and adaptive methods have been put in place to control the problem

See you soon!
           

Reference

Carpenter, K. et al (2008) ‘One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts’, Science, 321, 560-63

Mumby, P. Steneck, R. (2008) ' Coral reef management and conservation in light of rapidly evolving ecological paradigms', Science, 23, 10, 555-63

Pacific Islands; Greater Fear of Diarrhea thanks to Climate Change

Diarrhoea is often caused by a lack of safe water; water security is an issue in the Pacific Islands where they rely heavily on rainfall. Climate change is affecting weather patterns worldwide, and has affected the intensity and frequency of rainfall in the Pacific Islands.

Water shortage is a serious issue in Pacific Island States. Studies conducted in 18 Pacific states showed a positive association between annual average temperature and the rate of diarrhoea reports. This study published in 2001 was only looking at records from 1986-94, which means more recent studies should be conducted to see how climate change could be playing a roll, as the effects of climate change have become more severe in recent years. The study also looked at water availability rates also, so there was an increase in diarrhoea, temperature and a decrease in water availability, indicating Climate Change was decreasing water supply and therefore increasing incidence rates of diarrhoea (Singh et al 2001).

Another study conducted in Fiji also showed a positive correlation, using Poisson regression analysis, between diarrhoea and temperature, and diarrhoea and extremes of rainfall. (Singh et al 2001)

This threat is much less in larger Island states who often have aquifers or underground stores of water which are largely fuelled  by rainfall but are still available in rainfall shortages. (Singh et al 2001)

The Pacific Islands are situated in the EL Niño (ENSO) zone. ENSO is the strongest naturally occurring source of climate variability in the world. It already influences diseases during amplified ENSO cases, it is thought that ENSO will be affected by climate change, and that the worst areas to be affected will be in the Pacific area, this spells out bad news for the Island states who are expected to be most vulnerable to the associated changes in health risks. ENSO has already been linked to incidences of malaria in South America, rift valley fever in east Africa, dengue fever in Thailand, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in south western USA, childhood diarrhoeal disease in Peru and cholera in Bangladesh (Bouma 1996). However it should be remembered that it is currently unclear whether global warming will significantly increase the amplitude of ENSO variability. But if it does it is thought it will decrease rainfall in certain Pacific Islands and therefore increase diarrhoeal diseases. (Patz et al 2005)

References

Bouma, M. Van der Kaay, H. (1996) ‘The El-Niño Southern Oscillation and the historic malaria epidemics on the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka: an early warning system for epidemics’ Trop Med Int Health, 1:86–96 

Singh, R. Hales, S. de Wet, N. Raj, R. Hearnden, M. Weinstein, P. (2001), ‘The influence of climate variation and change on diarrheal disease in the Pacific Islands.’, Environ Health Perspect,  109(2): 155–159.

Patz, J. Campbell-Lendrum, D. Holloway, T. Foley, A. (2005), ‘Impact of regional climate change on human health’, nature, 438, 310-17

A global warm welcome to how climate change is affecting the Pacific Islands

We love talking and reading about things that are beautiful, take R-Patz and Blake Lively for example. Although this provides a good chat for the ordinary, we geographers prefer a different approach, and what is more beautiful than the Pacific Islands? Lustrous beaches, diverse biodiversity, seclusion and peace. However this could all change due to, the topic no geographer or Al Gore can resist talking about… climate change!

The Pacific Islands lie south of the tropic of cancer and are grouped into three sections Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In generalised terms there are two types of island in this area, high islands and low islands. High islands are typically formed from volcanoes and usually support a larger population due to their fertile soil. Low islands are reefs and atolls and are usually small.

Small island countries are among the most vulnerable to climate change. The effects are so great due to their; location, low lying setting, population growth, and migration. These characteristics vary island to island however. Low islands are more vulnerable to the physical risks such as beach erosion, saltwater intrusion, and flooding. Whilst larger islands are at a greater threat from social changes such as population growth, mainly being immigration from smaller island states.

The blog will be exploring the physical and human impacts of climate change in the Pacific Islands as well as the coping strategies, this will mainly involve reviewing academic articles, and a cheeky add of my own opinion as well as information gathered from newspapers, videos, lectures and other internet sources which will be linked

References

Mimaru, N. (1999) ‘Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climate change’, climate research, 12, 137-143