Reinvestment in the sugar industry in Fiji

A useful video I found on the sugar industry in Fiji

It talks about the SRIF, which is the Sugar Research unit the government has set up. They have been looking into ways in which to maximize production, they also work on a local level with farmers, educating them into different farming methods as well as providing land for them. They also provide livestock, and a range of seeds in order to improve the lives of subsistence farmers. They provide financial assistance which can enable farmers to earn a living and not just survive on the land. 

Adapting in Fiji, more stressful than you'd expect

So we have established that climate change is threatening Fiji and adaptation is necessary.

Tourist accommodation is now built with cyclone-proofing; however issues have been raised, interviews conducted on the island found

'It's much easier to build cyclone proofing in new developments but expensive and difficult to incorporate this in old, established buildings' (Becken 2005).

New resorts are built around 2.6m above the average sea level to avoid the issues of sea level rise (Becken 2005). The loss of sand as a result of cyclones, changing wind patterns and sea level rise is a major problem, especially in low sandy islands such as Beachcomber Island (Becken 2005).

Despite knowing the importance of mangroves for coastal protection, people are still cutting them down in order to free up space for further developments (Becken 2005). The sedimentation has put stress on the coral reefs. Therefore there has been action to plant more mangroves and coconut trees, however this has been moving the erosion elsewhere (Becken 2005).

Coral reefs have been damaged, and Fijians are focusing on reducing human effects such as pollution rather than focusing on ocean acidification. Fijian resorts have designated areas of the reefs for tourist use, so that not all the reef is disturbed (Becken 2005). Tourists are told not to touch or take whilst snorkeling or scuba diving. Fishing boats have been instructed not to set anchor on reefs, and people are not to walk on reefs (Becken 2005). Reefs that are not already under pressure from pollution and sedimentation are more likely to cope with increases in water temperature than stressed reefs. Therefore an important adaptive measure is to protect the coral reefs around tourist resorts (Becken 2005).

Sea level rise has increased the incidence of salt water intrusion. Adaptive strategies have been to encourage the use garden waste and shredded paper, cardboard or coconut shells to retain soil moisture so that salt water and flooding doesn’t affect agriculture as much as it could, and keep tourists connected to a plentiful water supply (Becken 2005). The use of grey water or recycled water can be used for irrigation. Grey water reservoirs can be used for fire fighting, and run toilets with saltwater or recycled water for flushing (Becken 2005). There are also technological solutions for water-conserving showers and toilets (e.g dual flush). Rainwater collection is possible, but this adaptation measure is problematic in that considerable space is required for water storage (Becken 2005). Underground tanks are a solution for newly designed resorts. However septic tanks can be expensive to buy and run for communities and some resorts (Becken 2005).

How could we improve adaptation strategies?

Social capital has been discussed in order to improve adaptation strategies (Adger 2003). It is seen to improve democracy and reduce the gap of winners and losers. Marginalised groups can often be ignored by governments, so it is important to incorporate civil society in decision making. When reading about the adaptive strategies in Fiji talked about in Beckens paper, I felt not enough was being done for people employed in other sectors not involved in tourism. Of course protecting the tourist industry is important as it's a major part of Fijis economy, but it is risky having such great independence on one export. The government to some extent have tried to encourage other areas of the economy. They have reinvested in the sugar cane industry with the creation of the Sugar Research Unit in 2005 (SRIF 2010). The government have also focused some attention to their coconut industry, coconut oil can be used as a biofuel, and when crude oil is becoming more expensive, biofuels can help costs internally and be a useful export (Islands Business International 2007). 

Pacific Coping Strategies

Next couple of posts will be about the strategies proposed or in place to combat the effects of climate change. In this one I will be focusing on the island Fiji, more about how climate change is affecting the island, coping strategies will come later.

To start off the theme, there are two main types of coping strategies; adaption and mitigation. Adaption will be a big talking point; it’s the most popular method:

Adaption; the ideal would be to create a shell, like the hermit crab and create our own perfect microhabitat (Reese 1969). Although saying that, humans have been adapting to climate change since the start of our very existence, we have an inherent capacity for it (Adger 2003). Adaption is a strategy that all Pacific Islands will have to consider when combating the effects of climate change. 

Climate change is attacking social, political and economic stability on most of the islands in the Pacific. Climate change is affecting tourism, which is the economic backbone for many island states.

Fiji is the most popular tourist destination in the South Pacific, however its tourist industry is volatile (Becken 2005). Fijis tourist trade will be affected by climate change through; the increased frequency and intensity of storms, and extreme weather events, but also through sea level rise, changing temperatures and precipitation patterns (Brecken 2005). As in other developing countries, this vulnerability is aggravated by limited institutional capacity, non-availability of technologies, ill-enforced regulatory frameworks, and lack of financing (Becken 2005)

In 1998, tourism earned F$568 million in foreign exchange, while sugar only earned F$244 million (Narayan, 2000). With the collapse of the sugar industry and increase in the tourist industry, tourism has become their largest and single most important asset to their economy (Becken 2005).

Selling Fiji to tourists is incredibly important, videos like this show how they sell themselves

About 90% of Fijis infrastructure and population reside in the low lying areas of the island (Becken 2005). This makes them vulnerable to flooding and salt water intrusion. Fiji is made up of a few islands, some being low lying attol islands (Maldives, Kiribas) and others being higher such as Viti Levu, these offer more room for activities further inland and away from the threat of rising sea levels (Becken 2005).

Coastal retreat is posing a threat to beaches and coastal activities for tourism. Over the last few decades the coast has retreated some 15-20 m in certain parts of Fiji (Mimura and Nunn 1994). Coastal retreat and erosion is being caused by changing wind patterns and strength (Becken 2005). Changes have been occurring in shoreline features. Insurance firms are resistant in including climate caused hazards in their claims, and investment in coastal areas have decreased (Becken 2005). Overall sea level variability and rise have been affecting tourism building stocks and beaches. Major coastal ecosystems will be damaged by climate change, corals and fishes have high touristic and economic value. Human impact on the environment, eg deforestation and pollution has reduced the capacity to cope with climate change impacts. 

On the 1st December there was an article written about the importance of adaptation in the Pacific. A UN study showed that island states could face losses of up to 18% of GDP from climate change (Observer 2012). The Pacific Environment and Climate Change Outlook (SPREP) said losses would result from sea level rise and extreme weather, combined with pressures from unsustainable fishing practices and coastal development. There are fears on some Islands that climate change will affect the life so severely that relocation is the adaption strategy, which is mentioned in a video I had previously posted in my blog (Marshall Island Video). As some of the affects of climate change have already occurred, adaption is a strategy all islands will have to follow. There are ongoing attempts to compliment these measures with mitigation strategies. The 18th UN Climate Change Conference in Doha, Qatar, should hopefully bring good news to the Pacific as it will encourage polluting countries to reduce their carbon emissions. Talks began on Monday and ends on December 7 (Observer 2012)

Easter Bleaching

Coral Bleaching is caused by various environmental factors; pollution being one (Japp and Wheaton 1979), lowered salinity (Egana andDiSalvo 1982), but most commonly and talked about in previous blogs – increased seawater temperatures.

Easter Island lies at the South East part of the Indo Pacific region. It has no structural reefs and hosts a desperate amount of fauna, demonstrated by its few species of corals (Wells 1972).

There have been records of mass expulsion of zooxanthellae (algae which live symbiotically in the cells of marine invertebrates) in corals around the mid-1980 (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). Heavy rainfall on 16th June 1980, divers who looked for corals for exportation noticed that the corals had begun to turn white on an island wide basis (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). The corals recovered gradually, it would take 2-3 months (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). It is thought that increased rainfall will decrease water salinity, sharp reduction of water salinity induces osmotic stress which brings on symbiont expulsion (Egana andDiSalvo 1982). Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, near shore areas, however with El Nino set to increase in severity and occurrence due to climate change may alter this (Glynn 1996). Climate change is set to increase rainfall and therefore lower salinity in waters causing coral bleaching.

As there is clear evidence that climate change, ENSO, sea temperature rise, and UVR are destroying corals, Glynn predicts a scenario where more or less continued warming with no return to optimal temperatures that would allow coral reef recovery. Threats also related to climate change (e.g. sea-level rise, increased solar irradiance, higher CO2 concentrations of ocean waters, changing patterns of rainfall, cyclonic storms and ocean circulation) are possible, and likely would interact with temperature rise (Glynn 1996). So depending on how we limit climate change and how the corals adapt to it, we could see a mass extinction of corals (Glynn 1996).

Easter Island is dependent on tourism and trade of Pacific goods such as corals (Egana and DiSalvo 1982). This makes them vulnerable as both of these things are becoming harder as climate change persists. The sea level rise and harsher storms are causing tourist boats not board Easter Island, as the choppy and high seas can make it dangerous for ships to go near its rocky shores (National Geographic 2012). This means tourism is decreasing and therefore creating a decline in its economy. Bleaching corals mean the quality of it decreases and is not suitable for export, also hitting the economy, it is suggested that Chile should invest more in its port to encourage tourism (National Geographic 2012).

If you want to read more about Easter Island, a blog I would recommend would be ‘Paradise Loss’, blogs 29.11.12 and 8.11.12 may be of interest to you.

Also if you have problems using my links for references:

Egana, A. DiSalvo, L. (1982) ‘Mass Expulsion of Zooxanthellae by Easter Island Corals’ Pacific Science, 36, 1, 61-3

Gylnn, P. (1996) ‘Coral reef bleaching: facts, hypotheses and implications’ Global Change Biology, 2, 6, 495-509

Japp, W. (1979) ‘Observations on Zooxanthellae Expulsion at Middle Sambo Reef, Florida Keys’, Bulletin of Marine Science, 29, 3, 414-22

Wells, J. (1972) ‘Notes on the IndoPacific scleractinian corals. Part 8.

Scleractinian corals from Easter Island’, Pac Sci 26: 183-190

Marshall Island Video

A video I found very useful on giving an insight on how climate change is affecting small island states

looking at not only the affects of bleaching but the other global issues such as sea level rise. It's useful to see more than just the physical affects of climate change, but also the political and social.

Coral Bleaching - Expelling Biodiversity

Corals are persistent, they have survived for tens of millions of years, through all the climate fluctuations of the Pleistocene and the Holocene (Stoddart 2008). You wouldn’t think they were candidates for extinction. However periods of mass coral extinctions have occurred before, up to 45% of all coral species went extinct around the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (Carpenter et al 2008). Corals are under threat; a major one being coral bleaching which is mainly caused by increased sea temperatures but also high solar irradiance and disease (Brown 1997). Coral reefs are among the most productive and diverse ecosystems; thousands of species coexist, meaning its vital to protect for biodiversity (Parker 2012). Coral bleaching is a whitening of corals due to loss of symbiotic algae and/or their pigments (Brown 1997). The problem of coral bleaching is far more serious than its loss of colour, it means that the home of many creatures has died and no longer provides food for marine species and therefore humans.

The region is diverse in terms of natural events. Climate change is, and will continue to, increase the frequency and intensity of these natural occurrences. These include; ENSO, tropical cyclones, floods and drought and by persistent features such as the trade winds and convergence zones (Hay et al 2002). Due to global warming, the Pacific region is warming by between 0.6 and 3.5ᵒC, a rate of warming which is much larger than the observed changes during the last century (Hay et al 2002). This will and has increased the occurrences of coral bleaching in the Pacific as corals bleach when water temperatures rise 1° to 2°C and persist over three or four weeks (Parker 2012). It is thought by some scientists that coral extinction may be coming again (Carpenter et al 2008). 

When sea temperature rises corals expel their symbionts, this causes colony death if the heat persists (Carpenter et al 2008). Although corals in the Pacific can cope in warm waters better than others due to ENSO, waters are getting warmer at a faster rate. A rate, that some scientists fear, is too quick for adaptation (Hay et al 2002). It is thought that the Pacific area will become more ‘ENSO like’, so wet areas will become wetter (increase in flooding), dry areas will become drier (increase in drought) and waters will become warmer (Hay et al 2002). Typhoons increasing in frequency and intensity will affect corals, strong typhoons mean corals are damaged for around 10 years (Stoddart 2008).

Increased damage from; natural occurrences (typhoons), sea temperature rise (coral bleaching), and over-fishing, is set to damage biodiversity in coral reefs considerably. 

Species closer to the sea surface are at a higher risk, the families that are most at risk are; Euphylliidae, Dendrophylliidae, and Acroporidae (Carpenter 2008). The species found in deeper reefs are less dependent on coral reeds as a habitat and the deeper waters are less affected by human and physical changes (Carpenter et al 2008). The proportion of threatened species is greatest in corals than terrestrial animal groups excluding amphibians (Carpenter et al 2008). Fish stocks are set to decline as coral bleaching increases, this spells out bad news when population sizes of the larger islands are set to increase (Lovell et al 2004).

The Reefs at Risk Revisted report predicts that by 2050 many Pacific reefs will bleach annually (Parker 2012).

Reference

Brown, B. (1997), ‘Coral Bleaching: Causes and Consequences’, Coral Reefs, 16, 5, 129-38 

Carpenter, K. et al (2008) ‘One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts’, Science, 321, 560-63

Hay, J. E. (2002), Climate variability and change and sea level rise in the Pacific Islands region: A resource book for policy and decision makers, educators and other stakeholders, Tokyo, Japan: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme and Japan Ministry of the Environment

Lovell, E. H. Sykes, M. Deiye, L. Wantiez, C. Garrigue, S. Virly, J. Samuelu, A. Solofa, T. Poulasi, K. Pakoa, A. Sabetian, D. Afzal, A. Hughes and R. Sulu, (2004), ‘Status of Coral Reefs in the South West Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu’, Australian Institute of Marine Science 2, 337-62

Parker, B. (2012) Pacific coral reef management in a changing climate in Keener, V. et al (ed.) Climate Change and Pacific Islands: Indicators and Impacts, PIRCA: Island Press, 15-17

Stoddart, D. (2008), ‘Ecology and Morphology of Recent Coral Reefs’, Biological Reviews, 44, 4, 433-98